The Reading Instruction Show

This podcast is designed to help white people understand systemic racism, white guilt, shame, and the history of the United States of America. That's quite a lot for an 11-minute podcast -- but I think I pretty much cover it all.

This podcast is designed for white people. Full disclosure: I am a white man. It also describes just some of the basic elements of systemic racism. It also differentiates between the word "equality" and "equity".

Critical Race Theory has been much maligned, discounted, and discredited without fully understanding exactly what it is. It has been presented as a bad thing, a dangerous thing, a nefarious thing by conservative groups such as The American Experiment. Disinformation, misinformation, and distortion are used under the guise of patriotism and Christianity. What is presented as Critical Race Theory is not critical race theory at all. Groups like The American Experiment offer a distorted, cartoonish, and perverted view of Critical Race Theory. This short podcast describes what it is and what it is not.

Reading programs need to be balanced (Cunningham & Allington, 2007te). This means that it’s is not all just one thing (like all phonics instruction, or all reading, or all writing, or all anything). Instead, there’s a little bit of this and a little bit of that. You may not have noticed, but children are not standardized products. Children learn differently, in different ways, and at different rates. Thus, in learning to read, some children need a little more of one thing while others need bit more of another thing. Trying to push all children through the same reading program will result in the slowed growth of some and the frustration of others. This practice is called teaching the program and not children. Effective teachers teach children. Factory workers teach the program. Whenever possible, strive to be a teacher, not a factory worker.

One of the ideas for getting more teachers of color into the classroom has been to look at fast-track alternative teacher preparation programs such as Teach for America. These kinds of programs are usually based on the spaghetti model: Throw enough spaghetti on the wall and some of it will stick. In other words - throw a bunch of low-paid, poorly prepared teachers into the classroom and some will eventually stick around, making it to a second year.Let me ask you this: Would you go to a fast-track dentist? What about a dentist who was part of a Dentists for America program? Most would say no. We expect a certain level of training and expertise from those in whom we entrust with the care of our teeth. Why would we think it appropriate to expect anything less of those who we entrust with the care and education of our children?

Problem: Only 16% of the US teacher force are teachers of color. This is a problem.On Saturday, May 1st, 2021 a group of teachers, teacher educators, administrators, and others from around the state of Minnesota and three other states met for conversation. The purpose was to address the problem related to the lack of teachers of color in our classrooms in Minnesota and around the country. Three questions were used to initiate this conversation:1. What are the filters that keep students of color from entering teacher preparation programs?2. What are the filters that keep students of color from completing teacher preparation programs?3. What can we do?

The old, weekly spelling tests just don’t work. I have found no research to indicate that they do anything to improve students' ability to spell under real-life writing conditions. Word Class is a self-selected approach to spelling instruction that meets the needs of spellers at all ability levels. Here students select the words they wish to study each week. This podcast describes a variety of activities that can be used with word class.

Reading programs need to be balanced. This means that it’s is not all just one thing (like all phonics instruction, or all reading, or all writing, or all anything). Instead, there’s a little bit of this and a little bit of that. You may not have noticed, but children are not standardized products. Children learn differently, in different ways, and at different rates. Thus, in learning to read, some children need a little more of one thing while others need bit more of another thing. Trying to push all children through the same reading program will result in the slowed growth of some and the frustration of others. This practice is called teaching the program and not children. Effective teachers teach children. Factory workers teach the program. Whenever possible, strive to be a teacher, not a factory worker.

Weekly spelling tests have been the staple of elementary education for the last 100 years. Here students memorize a list of words each week and then take a test on Friday. Tests are corrected, scores are taken, and one is deemed either a good spelling or not good speller. This would be a great way to teach spelling except for one thing: it’s not very effective. Studying a list of words out of any meaningful context has minimal effect in helping to develop students’ spelling proficiency; and worse, they keep students away from real writing experiences. This podcast describes a better way to help students learn how to spell correctly in authentic writing conditions.

Editing checklists and peer editing tables are great ways to reinforce grammar skills - and they also provide the structure necessary for students to successfully edit their papers.

Listed below are seven simple tips for helping students to develop an awareness of grammar in their speaking and writing.1. Use lots of real writing. Authentic writing with feedback and response from classmates and teachers is most effective in developing grammar awareness. Feedback, versus just correct mistakes, makes the writing come alive.2. Use worksheets judiciously. There’s nothing wrong with worksheets. They’re tools; however, like any tool, their effectiveness is determined by how they’re used. Whenever possible, have students work in pairs to complete these. That way they hear the thought process of others. Remember, the goal is learning and writing, not completing a worksheet and getting a score to record.3. Keep skills instruction brief and quickly paced. Students need some explicit instruction related to grammar. That is, they need to be told exactly what a noun, or incomplete sentence is (see Appendix A for the basic grammar rules). But more of something doesn’t mean more learning. Grammar learning is most effective when it is brief and in the context of students'wrwr real writing.4. Use posters and bulletin boards as reminders.5. Find ways to get students talking about their writing (peer group editing is one way to do this).6. Promote voluntary reading. Wide reading is the cure for almost everything literary.7. Become aware of your own grammar as you are speaking and writing

learning about grammar doesn’t have to be boring and meaningless. This chapter starts by dispelling some myths, otherwise known as silly grammar ideas. It then describes three approaches to grammar instruction

This question often arises: Should you insist on correct spelling when children are getting their initial ideas on paper? Short answer: no. • Real writers edit last. There’s a time and a place to look at spelling, grammar, and punctuation errors: in the editing stage (the 5-step writing process is be described below). We want students to view their writing as a way to capture and express their ideas. Overemphasizing conventional spelling in the beginning stages can inhibit writing. This reflects what happens in the real world where initial drafts are messy things with lots of spelling and grammar errors. In the writing my books, my initial drafts have lots of errors (less so because I have grammar and spell check). The point is that we should treat our students just as real writers are treated. Real writers have messy first drafts and revisions. They edit during the final phases of their writing

How much talking do you think young children would do if we corrected them after every utterance? What if we insisted that they pronounce every word perfectly and used only correct grammar as they were learning to speak? What if we assigned children their speaking topics and then corrected and evaluated their speaking instead of responding to their ideas? What do you think would happen? Well I can tell you: We’d create a generation of insecure, semi-psychotic mutes. And yet, this is what often happens when children are first learning to use the medium of writing as a vehicle for expressing their ideas. Well-meaning but ill-informed teachers or parents often insist that children’s writing always be grammatically correct and error free as soon as it hits the paper. This is a good way to create reluctant non-writers. Just like learning to speak, students’ ability to write develops best by sharing real ideas and getting real responses (vs. constant correction) from adults and other students. Don’t get me wrong here: Grammar, spelling, and punctuation are important, but these things are not writing. Writing is having ideas, organizing ideas, and communicating ideas. In this sense, grammar, spelling, and punctuation are a means to an end, but they are not ends by themselves.

all language processes are connected (reading, writing, speaking, listening, and thinking). Each language enhances students’ ability to use the others. Thus, one of way to help children to become more fluent in their reading is to help them become more fluent writers. This podcast describes the 5-step writing process and strategies for generating ideas for writing topics

A teacher’s or tutors number one job is to help children fall in love with books. Once this is done 98 % of reading instruction is complete. However, to do this, you must have good books for them to read. What’s a good book? A good book is any book that a student enjoys and wants to read. This podcast describes 8 simpley ideas for helping children fall in love with books.

So how do we go about the business of teaching children to read? We don’t. Instead, we create the conditions whereby children can learn to read and develop their reading skills. As I said in the last chapter, children learn to read and write in the same way that they learned to listen and speak, and that is, by being immersed in the language and by having adults around who responded to them in appropriate ways. In this sense then, we would be more accurate if we called ourselves reading-condition-creators instead of reading teachers. This podcast presents 8 tips to keep in mind as we create conditions.1. Help children fall in love with books.2. Create a space every day for sustained, silent reading.3. Allow children to make choices about their reading material.4. Connect reading pleasure to reading practice5. Keep your reading program simple.6. Keep instruction simple.7. Make reading like real life.8. Include talk and other forms of social interaction.

Learning to read is not an isolated process. Four language processes work together to enhance the development of each individual element: speaking, listening, reading, and writing. Listening and reading are the receptive processes (taking in information), and speaking and writing are the productive processes (giving out information). We might also include a fifth language process: thinking (language that takes place in your head).

In this podcast I describe some strategies and conditions that might facilitate culturally responsive teaching. Again, I will stress that these strategies and conditions by themselves do not constitute culturally responsive teaching. Instead, these can be used to address parts of the three interconnecting elements.

Zaretta Hammond defined culturally responsive teaching as . .“An educator’s ability to recognize students’ cultural displays of learning and meaning making and respond positively and constructively with teaching moves that use cultural knowledge as a scaffold to connect what the student knows to new concepts and content in order to promote effective information processing. All the while, the educator understands the importance of being in a relationship and having a social-emotional connections to the student in order to create a safe space for learning” (Hammond, 2015, p. 15)

Gloria Ladson-Billings (2014) describes culturally responsive teaching as consisting of three interacting and interconnected elements (a) learning that focuses on students’ intellectual growth, (b) cultural competence and inclusion, and (c) critical or sociopolitical consciousness. Neither of these by themselves can be said to be culturally response teaching. It is the interaction of these three that that creates culturally responsive teaching. This provides a framework for moving us forward in our understanding of CRT. Each of these elements is described in this podcast.

I used to think that CRT was a bunch of teaching strategies. Similar to cooperative learning, these strategies would have specific directions for their implementation. And if I just learned these strategies and attached them to my educating machine, then I would be a culturally responsive teacher. And I could teach my teacher candidate students to attach these strategies to their future educating machines so they would all be culturally responsive teachers. And over time, the grand educating machine would spew forth well-educated students who all scored above average on standardized tests, and systemic racism would be cured. Well … I was just a little right, but mostly wrong.

Values clarification is a strategy designed to help students identify, examine, and clarify their own values (Johnson, 2006). In the past, there has some have mischaracterized of values clarification activities as trying to tell students that there is no such thing as right or wrong (see the definition of morality in the last chapter). This is not the case. Instead, these types of activities provide the platform for students to define and develop their own set of values and identify behaviors that support their values. This is always more powerful and long lasting than simply telling them what they should value or how they should behave.

To be fully teacher, one must be fully present. Being fully teacher means being fully human. It is about being in relationship. It is about caring. It is about feeling. It is about keeping children from disappearing.

Defining and understanding exactly what reading is, is an important part of teaching reading. This podcast defines reading by describing four essential elements:1. Reading is the practice of using text to create meaning.2. Reading is a constantly developing skill.3. Reading integrates visual and non-visual information.4. Reading is the act of linking one idea to another.

There are three types of activities that can be used to advance students’ moral reasoning: moral dilemmas, values clarification activities, analyzing levels and stages. This podcast addresses moral dilemmas.

Carol Gilligan (1998) contended that Kohlberg’s research excluded and devalued women’s ways of moral reasoning. His theories on moral development were put forth by a male, in a male dominant society, using only male subjects and thus, were biased in favor of men. She had a point. Using extensive interviews with girls ages 6 to 18, she postulated that women have differing moral reasoning tendencies than men. According to Gilligan, women tend to think of right and wrong (morality) in terms of caring relationships and connections whereas men tend to think in terms of rules and justice. She argued that these differences were largely a result, not of biological influences, but of social influences and gender conditioning that occurred in a context in which women’s ways of thinking were often undervalued compared to men. As society continues to evolve (hopefully), these differences will continue to diminish.

We are failing our struggling readers because we are force-feeding them all the standardized reading slop, administered in the same way, and in the same sequence as every other human being subjected to the same for-profit, one-size-fits-all, standardized reading instruction program. Struggling readers are not standardized entities. Neither should their reading interventions. Depending on students’ needs, intervention sessions for reading should include some or all of the following seven elements:1. Word work2. Word identification3. Maze and cloze work4. Writing5. Fluency work6. Comprehension7. Reading practice

Lawrence Kohlberg (1984) research was not focused on behaviors, but in the subjects’ reasoning behind their behaviors. From this he developed his theory of moral development. This theory describes six stages of moral reasoning at three different levels. I. Pre-Conventional Level Stage 1 - Punishment. Stage 2 - Rewards. II. Conventional Level Stage 3 - Social Approval.Stage 4 - The Law. III. Post-Conventional LevelStage 5 - Social Contract. Stage 6 - Universal Principle.

We can and we must include moral development as part of our curriculums. But how?

The Danielson Framework is an example of a filter that is commonly used to evaluate preservice and practicing teachers. The Danielson Group describes this as a framework for professional practice. Here “good teaching” is comprised of four domains: (a) planning and preparation, (b) the classroom environment, (c) instruction, and (d) professional responsibilities. The four domains are broken into 22 components. And the 22 components are further broken into 76 teeny tine separate elements.The Danielson Group claims that “empirical studies” have shown the Framework to lead to improved student learning. This claim is false and misleading (Johnson, 2019). While there is some research to support some of the 76 teeny tiny elements, if you examine the research cited in the Danielson material you will find that much of it is questionable at best. Often it is misused or misinterpreted. As well, there is no research (none) to support the use of the Danielson Framework as being more effective than any other framework, or more effective than no framework at all for enhancing teacher effectiveness or improving student learning. It is just a bunch of stuff that somebody thought up once upon a time, and now the Danielson Group is using it to sell stuff. Imagine that. Making a profit off our students. teac

The terms “teacher professionalism” and “professional dispositions” are often used when assessing preservice and practicing teachers. But what is “teacher professionalism”? What dispositions are the “correct” ones for teachers? And who gets to decide these things?Dispositions or Mind ControlMost teacher preparation programs address and assess three elements: knowledge, skills, and dispositions (Creasy, 2015). The dispositional element is commonly viewed as “teacher professionalism”. A disposition is a state of mind that creates an inclination to think or act in certain ways. There are both positive and negative dispositions. Examples of positive dispositions include compassion, curiosity, fortitude, and honesty. Examples of negative dispositions include pessimism, laziness, dishonesty, and indifference. These dispositions are all examples of internal states of mind. Some might also consider them character traits or even values. However, some teacher preparation programs try to mandate that all preservice teachers have specific internal states of mind. Rubrics and checklists are even created to try to document and quantify these internal states of mind. But trying to control the internal state of mind of another is a form of mind control. It is not healthy for the field of education to be in the business of mind control.

Josey was a 3rd grade student. Before our first session, I listened to her read passages at Lexile level 330 (approximately 1.9 grade level). She read 50 WPM with 97% accuracy. Seven weeks later, after 14 sessions, she read passages at Lexile level 440 (approximately 2.5 grade level). Here she read 74 WPM with 98% accuracy. Our work focused specifically on two deficit areas: reading fluency and word identification.

Currently, 2.4 million students are classified as having a learning disability and are receiving special education services. Up to 80% of these students (approximately 1,920,000) have some sort of reading disability. Approximately 3% to 5% of all students have a severe reading disability. In segregated special education settings, the general learning outcomes are lower than inclusive classrooms and reading achievement is not accelerated. The US Department of Education reported that in 2015, 70% of all students in grade 4 achieved below basic levels in reading. In 2017 it was 71%, and in 2019 it was 74%. The US Department of Education also reported that from 2002 to 2009 there were no statistically significant changes in the reading scores of students with disabilities in grades 4, 8, and 12. There are real people behind these numbers, just like Erik. Clearly, what we’re doing isn’t working. Yet the special education industry continues down the same path, insisting on costly testing and programming. Why? We are failing our struggling readers.

Erik. As teachers we tend to remember our failures. One of mine occurred in 1983, my first year of teaching. I was a 2nd grade teacher at Greenwood Elementary School and Erik was my student. I failed him miserably. I still remember him. He was a happy little guy in the fall. But as the year went along, he became less happy. He began to slump in his desk. He seemed to draw into himself. 36 years later he still lingers in my mind. Erik struggled with his reading and I failed to help him. This is his story.

There is an insidious way of silencing those who are not in lockstep with the majority in organizations and academic institutions. It is called soft bullying and microaggression. These are sometimes used to mute and muzzle minority views and dissenting voices. The results is that the divergent ideas, conflicting views, and disagreements that are essential for the health and evolution of any organization, especially academic institutions, are lost. To mute and muzzle is to engage in practices that devolve and decay the foundations of the academic institution in which they occur, and it conflicts with the standards for respectful academic discourse held by the academy.

In our current educational system, standardized tests are used to assess the quality of the student-products as they move along the 13-year conveyor belt within the education factories commonly referred to as schools. Students who have test scores that fall below a certain percentile ranking are thought to have a disability. Additional standardized tests are then given by standardized testing experts to confirm and diagnose the cause of the disability. Very much like a disease, a “special” standardized treatment is then prescribed for this disability.These students are then sent off to Special Ed World. This is a purgatorial “special” place apart from the general education classroom where students are given the prescribed special treatment by special treatment experts. In the segregated setting of Special Ed World, the special treatment experts implement the special treatment with fidelity. However, one of the many problems with Special Ed World as currently configured is that once students become entangled in the special education machinery, they are lost forever. They rarely return.This podcast examines four interconnecting elements within Special Ed World: (a) reading instruction, (b) data-resistant theoretical constructs, (c) paradigmatic parochialism regarding what is considered “scientifically-based” research, and (d) manipulative approaches to teaching.

It cannot be assumed at any level that people understand democratic process or know the particulars of proper meeting protocol. In this podcast we examine and describe these two elements based on Roberts Rules of Order (RRO).

Motivation is an internal state that causes us to direct attention or maintain behavior. Motivation can direct our attention and sustain our behavior toward a particular goal. All students enter kindergarten excited and motivated to learn. They see themselves as able learners, whole and complete. But something happens in the next two years as some of our students travel down the educational conveyer belt. They begin to view themselves as defective. The system begins to view them as broken toys that need to be sent back to Santa’s workshop. In order to get the education they need, the educational bureaucracy has forced us to stamp a big label on the foreheads of these children: learning disabled. As described above, this term does not exist. All humans learn. Learning is a state of being human and being alive. With their label now in place, we send these little humans off to the rooms down the hall to get them all fixed up so they can return to the “normal” classroom with “normal” kids. Just as all students learn, all students are motivated to do something. The problem is that some of these things are not always school-related things. But again, put yourself in the place of a student with a reading disability. How motivated you would be to come to school and fail?

Affect in education usually refer to emotions and motivation. Since these do not show up on test scores, to the educational bureaucracy, they do not exist; however, they are, arguably, the most important components in teaching and learning, especially if you are a student with a special learning need.Motivation and emotion are perhaps the most important components when working with students with moderate to severe reading disabilities, yet it is the area that seems to be given the least amount of attention.EMOTIONSWe think, learn, and emote with the same brain. Thus, it would be silly to think that students’ emotions would not be a factor in their ability to learn. Positive emotional experiences can enhance and promote learning; negative emotions can disrupt and prevent learning. And, since there is plenty of research to support this notion, we can say that attending to students’ emotions can be considered a research-based strategy and not simply some namby-pamby, feel-good activity designed to make liberals out of your kids.

Teaching as transmission views teaching as merely transmitting knowledge from Point A (teacher’s head) to Point B (students’ heads). Teaching as transaction views teaching as a process of creating situations whereby students are able to interact with the material to be learned in order to construct knowledge. And teaching as transformation views teach as creating conditions that have the potential to transform the learner on many different levels (cognitive, emotional, social, intuitive, creative, transpersonal, and other). Which is the correct view?

Within the academic, respectful academic discourse is expected when discussing and debating issues. Here people exchange ideas, they define and defend their positions, and they delineate points of agreement and disagreement with others. Sometimes there are very heated exchanges while discussing and debating issues. This is as it should be. Debate is an important part of the scholarly process within the academy; however, it is done using respectful academic discourse. In the academic of scholars, this is one of the standards.

Disagreements are good. Differing points of view are healthy for any organization or group. Conflicting ideas provide a broader view of the situation and more potential possibilities. You see more sides of the problem and generate more potential solutions. Questioning new ideas or proposals allows them to be fully vetted. This is how programs, policies, schools, institutions, and teacher preparation programs grow and evolve.Embracing a variety of ideas, philosophies, and viewpoints has always been healthy. Repressing conflicting ideas, allowing only a single viewpoint has always led to extremely unhealthy situations. Sadly, idea repression occurs too often in societies, religious organizations, churches, political groups, schools, and yes, even in universities. Imagine that. And nothing good ever comes from this. Uniformity creates a stagnant unhealthy petri dish.Uniformity is Not PossibleAs well, it is not humanly possible to have complete uniformity of thought. Even in the most regimented group, military organization, religious order, sect, or church - people have slightly differing views on things. And even people in groups who try to follow a literal interpretation of a religious doctrine or holy book, or originalists who strive to understand the constitution based on the original understanding, have slightly different interpretations. The only case in which you would find uniformity of thought would be if you project all moral and intellectual authority onto a leader or group and pledged blind allegiance. But here, you would be giving up part of your humanity.

This podcast describes two starkly contrasting approaches to individualized educational programs (IEPS): A systems-centered approach and a person-centered approach.

This is the first in a serious of podcast using critical race theory to examine teacher preparation. In this podcast, seven basic ideas or common understands of critical race theory are examined.

Systemic racism has never been fully addressed in our society, our culture, and our curriculums. Simply including George Washing Carver in a social studies lesson just will not do it this time around. We need more than that. Systemic racism calls for a systemic response. This p0dcast addresses white guilt, white shame, and the history of the United States of America

I am not an expert in critical race theory or systemic racism. I am a middle age white guy trying to come to grips with systemic racism and contribute where I can. I am just an old literacy professor trying to do my part. I may not get it just right, but I am trying. In this podcast, I will try to explain some things in ways that help some people to better understand. I don’t have complete enlightenment – and again - I may not get it just right -- but I’m trying. I refuse to abdicate my responsibility to do what I can on the issue of racial equity.John Lewis said, when you see something wrong, say something and do something.There is something wrong. No let me say something.

Humanistic learning theory is based upon five supporting principles. 1. Students’ learning should be as self-directed as possible. In other words, students should be given choices about what they learn, how they learn, and how they demonstrate their learning, to the greatest degree possible. Choice here does not mean total choice all the time. Instead, it means as much choice as is appropriate for the situation. Choice exists on a continuum. For example, you can offer:(a) no choice. “We’re studying the Civil War this month. This is the book we’re going to read. This is the topic you’ll be doing reports on.”(b) a choice within a set. “I’ve put out five books for you, you can choose the one you wish to read.” (c) a choice within a category. “We’re studying the Civil War this month, you can read any book or investigate any topic related to the Civil War.” (d) total choice. “Find a topic that interests and inspires you for your research project. These are the criteria. This is the due date. Find a book that you love for our reading class.” Some situations require more choice, some less choice. The goal would be to provide the minimum amount of control necessary to create a positive learning experience.2. The subject matter to be learned should be relevant to the lives or personal interests of the students. It should be connected to the students’ lives or interests whenever possible and to the greatest extent possible. For example, when learning number facts in the primary grades, students would be asked to use them to figure out problems in real life situations. Humanistic educators find creative ways for mandated subject matter to reflect or connect with students’ lives. At the same time, space is provided within a curriculum for students to explore topics of interest to them. For example, knowing what is of interest to adolescents, humanistic educators would seek to incorporate themes related to social experiences, relationships, and defining roles and values into traditional subject areas. 3. The full spectrum of the human experience should be included in the educational experience. Emotions, relationships, creativity, imagination, intuition, and real-life problems are all part of the human experience. Including them in the educational experience enhances learning as well as the development of humans. Humanistic educators create the conditions where human beings can learn to use all these human dimensions to solve problems, make decisions, and come to know the world. As well, traditional curriculums are studied in a multidimensional context. Art, drama, music, poetry, creative writing, and other arts are used as tools along with traditional methods to explore or respond to information and ideas. 4. Schools should produce students who want to learn and know how to learn. Humanistic educators build on students’ natural desire to learn by asking them to learn about things that are relevant to their lives and by helping them to make the connections. Curriculum is designed around students' natural ways of learning and includes things about which students want to learn. As well, students are taught how to learn. That is, how to get the necessary information they need, how to critically analyze and evaluate that information, and how to use and apply this information. 5. Students learn best in a non-threatening environment. Threats come in the form of physical threats, but also social threats, emotional threats, or things that endanger one’s self esteem or phenomenological self (Combs, 1999). This occurs when schools focus more on measuring learning than they do on enhancing learning.

Psychologists Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow are generally thought to be the founders of modern humanistic learning theory (DeCarvalho, 1991). Humanistic learning theory is not easily defined. There are many views; however, all views seem to share two overriding tenets: First, humans are by their very nature evolving, self-developing creatures. As such, we have a natural inclination to learn and develop fully. Learning is enhanced when educational experiences align with these natural desires. Second, the goal of education should be to enable each person to develop his or her full potential. HUMANISTIC EDUCATION Humanistic learning theory is the theory upon which humanistic education is based. These terms are used interchangeably in this chapter. Dehumanizing EducationHumanistic education is a reaction to an educational system that is seen as de-humanizing. These dehumanizing elements include the following: 1. Students are often asked to be passive learners and to learn in ways that are not natural for them. As well, the things given to them to learn are often meaningless or have no connection to their lives and experiences. 2. Manipulation is used to get students to learn and to behave in acceptable ways. Instead of building on their natural inclinations, students are manipulated by external rewards and punishment to "learn" school-related things and to be compliant. What is rarely considered are the reasons why students may not want to learn or why their behaviors may be disruptive or non-compliant.3. One-dimensionality is perpetuated. Only the cognitive dimension of students' humanity is recognized. Ignored in classrooms and curriculum are the many aspects that make us human: our creativity, imagination, transcendence, curiosity, social natures, and our emotional dimensions. 4. Humans and human learning are too often described in terms of numbers. Experiences, traits, endeavors, and achievement that cannot be quantified and compared, are thought not to exist or to be of little value. This quantification of the educational experience is often used to compare students to a mythical norm. Such quantification creates winners and losers as students find themselves above or below a mythical "average".5. Only traditional ways of knowing and being in the world are seen to be of worth. Views that do not align with traditional perspectives are seen to be of lesser importance. Norms and values that do not reflect the dominant culture are diminished or ignored. Only the history that tells the story of advantaged groups is seen as being worth repeating.Humanistic EducationHumanistic education views learning in terms of personal growth and the development of each person’s full potential. Growth and development occur here, not just on an intellectual level, but also on an emotional, psychological, creative, social, and physical level (DeCarvalho, 1991; Maslow, 1971; Morris, 1978; Rogers & Freiberg, 1994; Patterson, 1973). Within this context, five goals are identified: 1. Facilitate the development of fully functioning, self-actualized human beings who have the capacity to nurture themselves, others, and their environment. 2. Instill a joy of learning and a desire to be life-long learners. 3. Promote the discovery of each student’s passions, special talents, and abilities. 4. Teach the knowledge and skills necessary for students to be good decision makers and effective problem solvers. 5. Enable students to be responsible world citizens who are able to contribute to democratic societies.

Good teaching starts with an operational definition of teaching. There are three common views of what constitutes teaching: teaching as transmission, teaching as transaction, and teaching as transformation (Miller, 1996).Teaching as TransmissionFrom this perspective, teaching is the act of transmitting knowledge from Point A (teacher’s head) to Point B (students’ heads). This is a teacher­-centered approach in which the teacher is the dispenser of knowledge, the arbitrator of truth, and the final evaluator of learning. A teacher’s job from this perspective is to supply students with a designated body of knowledge or set of skills in a predetermined order. Academic achieve­ment is seen as students’ ability to demonstrate, replicate, or retransmit this designated body of knowledge or set of skills back to the teacher or to some other measuring agency or entity. From this perspective standardized tests are considered to be an apt measure of students’ learning.Teaching as TransactionFrom this perspective, teaching is the process of creating situations whereby students are able to interact with the material to be learned in order to construct knowledge. Constructivism is an educational philosophy consistent with this view. Here, knowledge is not passively received; rather, it is actively built up or constructed by students as they connect their past knowledge and experiences with new information (Santrock, 2004). And just as each student’s past knowledge and experiences are different, so too is the interpretation, understanding, and meaning of the new information that each ultimately constructs.Teachers are not expected to pour knowledge into the heads of learners; rather, they assist learners in their construction of knowledge and development of skills by creating experiences where students’ can use their current understand of knowledge and skills to learn new knowledge and skills. Academic achievement from a constructivist perspective is seen as students’ ability to use this knowledge and skills to solve real-world problems or to create products or performances that are valued in one or more cultural settings.Teaching as TransformationFrom this perspective, teaching is creating conditions that have the potential to transform the learner on many different levels (cognitive, emotional, social, intuitive, creative, transpersonal, and other). Transformational teach­ing invites both students and teachers to discover their full potential as learners, as members of society, and as human beings. The ultimate transformational goal is to help develop more nurturing human beings who are better able to perceive the interconnectedness of all human, plant, and animal life (Narve, 2001).Learning is said to have occurred when educational experiences elicit a transformation of consciousness that leads to a greater understanding of and care for self, others, and the environment. Academic achievement from this perspective is similar to self-actualization. That is, it is perceived as discovering and developing each individual’s unique talents and capabilities to the fullest extent possible. Academic achievement also involves becoming aware of the multiple dimensions of self and expanding one’s consciousness.