The Ancient World

Synopsis: King Muwatalli II relocates the Hittite capital to the new royal city of Tarhuntassa near the Mediterranean coast, then faces off against the young pharaoh Ramesses II in the Battle of Qadesh. After Muwatalli’s death, his son and brother – Urhi-Teshub and Hattusili – contend for the Hittite throne. “For seven years I submitted to the king. But at a divine command and with human urging, Urhi-Teshub sought to destroy me. He took Hakpissa and Nerik from me. Now I submitted to him no longer. I made war against him.” – The Apology of Hattusili III Map of the Late Bronze Age eastern Mediterranean: https://audio.ancientworldpodcast.com/LBA_Hittite_Map.jpg The Hittite Royal Family: https://audio.ancientworldpodcast.com/LBA_Hittite_Family_Tree.jpg Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

Hi everyone! As you likely know, I really enjoyed making the original “Ancient World” podcast series – especially the parts covering the Bronze Age Near East and eastern Mediterranean. I’ve always hoped for the opportunity to update and expand those episodes with the latest and greatest information and also introduce new topics that I never had the chance to cover. And I think I’ve finally found a great way to do it. I’m teaming up with avid.fm to put together an audio course called “The Bronze Age.” It’s a mix of remastered segments of the original episodes combined with significant new content. So you’ll get a refresher on the Sumerians, the Egyptians and Sargon of Akkad along with new discussion of the Uruk Expansion and the birth of the Hurrian kingdoms. You’ll get the classic content on Ur III, Babylonia and Elam while also learning about the Oxus Civilization of Central Asia and the Jiroft Culture of Iran. And you’ll hear how the arrival of the horse and invention of the spoke-wheeled chariot came to define the nature of Bronze Age warfare. I’m very excited to put this together and I think you’ll really enjoy it. Even better, the course has zero risk and a 100% satisfaction guarantee – which means that if you don’t like it you can get your money back for up to 30 days after the start of the course. We need to confirm that there’s enough interest before I start production. So if you’re a fan of The Ancient World and want to do something to help out the show please sign up right now for “The Bronze Age” at avid.fm/ancient. That’s avid.fm/ancient. Register by April 30, 2021 – and if we get enough interest this will definitely happen. If you have any trouble with the link above, please use this one instead: https://learner.avid.fm/course/s/the-ancient-world-presents-the-bronze-age As always, thanks again for listening! Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

Synopsis: In the late 14th century BC, the Hittite Great King Suppiluliuma wrested Syria from the grip of the Hurrian kingdom of Mitanni. Two of his sons would succeed him to the throne, while two others founded new dynasties in the cities of Aleppo and Carchemish. “The Euphrates is my frontier. In my rear, I established Mount Lebanon as my frontier. And all of the cities of the land of Carchemish – these fortified cities – I gave to Piyassili, my son… Since Prince Piyassili crossed the Euphrates with Prince Shattiwaza and penetrated to the city of Irrite, all the cities on the west bank which Piyassili my son holds, these belong to Piyassili.” – The Suppiluliuma-Shattiwaza Treaty “The gods ran before my father, namely the Sun Goddess of Arinna, the Storm God of Hatti, the Storm God of the Army Camp, and Ishtar of the Field. He conquered the enemy.” – Mursili, The Deeds of Suppiluliuma I Map of the Late Bronze Age eastern Mediterranean: https://audio.ancientworldpodcast.com/LBA_Hittite_Map.jpg The Hittite Royal Family: https://audio.ancientworldpodcast.com/LBA_Hittite_Family_Tree.jpg Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

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Synopsis: In the 4th century AD, the Ethiopian kingdom of Axum converted to Christianity even as the neighboring Himyarites of Yemen converted to Judaism. Centuries later, Axum’s invasion of Yemen to stop the persecution of Christians triggered a conflict with Persia. Map of the kingdoms of Axum and Himyar: https://audio.ancientworldpodcast.com/AxumHimyar.jpg Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

Synopsis: The Sabaeans and Himyarites leveraged their control over south Arabian aromatics into a lucrative trade that spanned the ancient world. The region’s remoteness, wealth and active diplomacy afforded some protection from the powerful empires who frequently dominated the north. Map of the Arabian Peninsula:https://audio.ancientworldpodcast.com/Yemen.jpg Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

Synopsis: A century after Queen Zenobia, another Syrian Arab warrior queen rises to challenge the power or Rome – and succeeds. The story of Queen Mavia of the Tanukh. “Mavia, queen of the Saracens, had begun to convulse the villages and towns on the border of Palestine and Arabia with a violent war, and to ravage the neighboring provinces.” – Rufinas Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

Synopsis: The death of King Philip I marks the official end of the Seleucid line. Invited by the Antiochenes to rule them, King Tigranes II of Armenia proceeds to conquer all of Syria – including Cleopatra Selene’s stronghold of Ptolemais-Akko. But Tigranes’ refusal to abandon his ally, King Mithridates VI of Pontus, leads to his empire’s destruction. “Tigranes…marched forth with an army of such huge proportions that he actually laughed heartily at the appearance of the Romans present there. He is said to have remarked that, in cases where they came to make war, only a few presented themselves, but when it was an embassy, many came.” – Cassius Dio, Rome, Book 36 “Pompey…expelled Antiochus (XIII), from the government of Syria, although he had done the Romans no wrong…The pretense was that it was unseemly for the Seleucidae, whom Tigranes had dethroned, to govern Syria, rather than the Romans, who had conquered Tigranes.” – Appian, The Syrian Wars, Book 10 (Absolutely awesome and super-useful) map of Syria and surrounding territories c. 87 BC https://audio.ancientworldpodcast.com/87BC.png Map of the Greater Armenian Empire of King Tigranes II https://audio.ancientworldpodcast.com/Armenia1.png Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

Synopsis: With Rome encroaching from the north and south, the sons of Grypus battle Parthians, usurpers and local powers to keep their hold on Syria. “As he lingered on the banks of the Euphrates, (Sulla) received a visit from Orobazus, a Parthian, who came as an ambassador from King Arsaces, although up to this time the two nations had held no intercourse with one another. This also is thought to have been part of Sulla’s great good fortune, that he should be the first Roman with whom the Parthians held conference when they wanted alliance and friendship.” – Plutarch, Parallel Lives, Sulla “Straton, the tyrant of Berroea…called in Zizon, the ruler of the Arabian tribes, and Mithridates Sinax, the ruler of the Parthians, who coming with a great number of forces, and besieging Demetrius (III) in his encampment, into which they had driven them with their arrows, compelled those that were with him by thirst to deliver up themselves. So they took a great many spoils out of that country, and Demetrius himself, whom they sent to Mithridates (II).” – Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, Book XIII, Chapter 12 (Absolutely awesome and super-useful) map of Syria and surrounding territories c. 95 BC https://audio.ancientworldpodcast.com/95BC.png Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

Synopsis: While the Ptolemies intrigue in Coele Syria, Antiochus VIII Grypus and his half-brother Antiochus IX Cyzicenus struggle for seventeen years to win control of the north. After the rivals die in quick succession, the kingdom comes under control of Seleucus VI and Demetrius III, the allied sons of Grypus. “Then Grypus proceeded to besiege Antioch, the city where Cyzicenus’ wife Cleopatra (IV) was to be found, and when it was captured Tryphaena, the wife of Grypus, ordered that the highest priority be given to hunting down her sister…to ensure that she escape one of the miseries of captivity. For Tryphaena believed that it was from feelings of jealousy towards herself that Cleopatra had entered this kingdom rather than any other, and that she had declared herself her sister’s enemy by marrying her sister’s foe.” – Justin, Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus, Book 39 Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

Synopsis: Cleopatra Thea convinces her son Antiochus VIII Grypus to return to Syria and share the throne. But once Zabinas is defeated and the kingdom secure, Grypus decides to avenge his brother’s murder. “Ptolemy (Physcon)…proceeded to devote his entire strength to the destruction of Alexander (Zabinas’) kingdom, which the latter had acquired by Ptolemy’s resources solely because of his hatred for Demetrius (II). He therefore sent assistance to Grypus on a massive scale and also gave him the hand of his daughter, Tryphaena, in marriage.” – Justin, Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus, Book 39 “After recovering his father’s throne and being freed from threats from abroad, Grypus became the target of his mother’s treachery. Through her lust for power she had already betrayed her husband, Demetrius, and killed her other son; now she took it ill that her prestige was diminished by Grypus’ victory, and so she set before him a cup of poison.” – Justin, Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus, Book 39 Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

Synopsis: Demetrius II returns to Syria, but his unpopularity – and support for the Egyptian Queen Cleopatra II – results in a usurper named Alexander Zabinas taking most of his kingdom. Fleeing a military defeat, Demetrius is denied entry to Ptolemais-Akko by Cleopatra Thea, an act that leads to his death. The elevation of their son Seleucus V results in a darker tragedy. “Released from confinement among the Parthians and restored to his throne, Antiochus’ brother Demetrius (II) decided to make war on Egypt…For his mother-in-law, Cleopatra (II), promised him the throne of Egypt as the reward for his assistance against her brother.” – Justin, Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus, Book 39. “Demetrius (II), for his part, was defeated by Alexander (Zabinas) and, with misfortune besetting him on all sides, he was finally abandoned even by his wife and children. Left with a few slaves, he made for Tyre, intending to use the sanctity of the temple to protect himself; but as he disembarked from this ship he was killed on the orders of the governor.” – Justin, Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus, Book 39. Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

Synopsis: A Syrian man from Apamea, enslaved on the island of Sicily, renames himself King Antiochus and launches the first large-scale slave rebellion against the Roman Republic. “The Sicilians, through the enjoyment of a long peace, grew very rich, and brought up an abundance of slaves; who being driven in droves like so many herds of cattle from the different places where they were bred and brought up, were branded with certain marks burned on their bodies….their masters were very strict and severe with them, and took no care to provide either necessary food or clothing for them, so that most of them were forced to rob and steal to get these necessities; so that all places were full of slaughters and murders.” – Diodorus Siculus, The Historical Library, Book 34 “Then they made Eunus king, not for his valor or skill in warfare, but on account of his extraordinary tricks, and because he was made the leader and author of the defection…At length, putting a diadem upon his head and graced with all the emblems of royalty, he caused his wife, who was also a Syrian from the same city, to be called queen, and chose such as he judged to be the most prudent to be his councillors.” – Diodorus Siculus, The Historical Library, Book 34 Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

Synopsis: After Mithridates is struck down by an illness, his son Phraates II defends Parthian gains against the army of Antiochus VII. Forced to retreat to Hyrcania, Phraates sets events in motion that result in the deaths of both kings. “On Antiochus (VII)’s approach, many eastern princes came to meet him, surrendering their persons and their thrones, with curses of the arrogance of the Parthians. The first encounter took place forthwith. Victorious in three battles, Antiochus seized Babylon and began to be dubbed ‘the Great.’ Thus, as all the peoples were defecting to him, the Parthians were left with nothing but the lands of their fathers.” – Justin, Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus, Book 38 “When word of (a revolt) came to Antiochus (VII), he advanced with the contingent which was wintering with him in order to assist those who were closest at hand, only to meet while on the march the king of the Parthians, against whom he put up a braver fight than did his forces. Finally, however, the enemy’s valor prevailed and Antiochus, deserted by his craven troops, was killed.” – Justin, Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus, Book 38 “Let’s sit on the ground and tell sad stories of the death of kings, how some were overthrown and others killed in war. Some were haunted by the ghosts of the kings they had overthrown.” – Shakespeare, Richard II: Act 3 Scene 2 Map of the Parthian Empire c. 96 BC, which is fairly similar to what they held under Mithridates I c. 138 BC: https://audio.ancientworldpodcast.com/Parthia96BC.jpeg Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

Synopsis: Ongoing strife in Anatolia and Egypt allows Antiochus VII to campaign east against the Parthians. His early successes inspire hopes of a resurgent Seleucid Empire, hopes shattered by his unexpected death. “In Asia, Attalos III as soon as he came to the throne began to manage affairs in a way quite different from all the former kings; for they, by their clemency and kindness to their subjects, reigned prosperously and happily themselves and were a blessing to the kingdom; but this prince being of a cruel and bloody disposition oppressed his subjects with many slaughters and grievous calamities.” – Diodorus Siculus, The Historical Library, Book 35 “Ptolemy Physcon, when he saw that his sister Cleopatra (II) was so great an enemy to him, and could not revenge himself otherwise upon her, contrived a most abominable piece of villainy for that purpose. For, imitating the cruelty of Medeia, he murdered her son, begotten by himself, in Cyprus; the son was called Memphites, and was still a young boy.” – Diodorus Siculus, The Historical Library, Book 35 “(Queen) Laodice (of Cappadocia) had had six children of the male sex by King Ariarathes (V); she feared that she would not long remain in control of the kingdom once any of them grew up, so she resorted to murder, killing five of them by poison.” – Justin, Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus, Book 37 Map of Anatolia after the Treaty of Apamea (c. 188 BC): https://audio.ancientworldpodcast.com/Anatolia.jpg Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

“In this battle, Antiochus’ horse was wounded and killed, and the king himself was struck through the mouth and lost some of his teeth. On the whole, he acquired on that occasion the greatest reputation for valor. Because of this battle, Euthydemus was caught off guard and retreated with his forces into the Bactrian city of Zariaspa.” – Polybius, The Histories, 10.49 Synopsis: After the death of Alexander the Great, Bactria came under Seleucid rule before gaining its independence under the Diodotid and Euthydemid kings. In the second part of my interview with historian and author Tristan Hughes, we discuss how the Bactrian Kingdom was born, preserved itself against multiple attempts at Seleucid reconquest, and finally met its end. Tristan Hughes @BattlesAncients on Twitter Battles of the Ancients website www.turningpointsoftheancientworld.com Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

“I am engaged in a land of a leonine and brave people, where every foot of the ground is like a wall of steel confronting my soldiers. You have brought only one Alexander into the world, but every mother in this land has brought an Alexander into the world.” – Alexander the Great, in a letter written to his mother Olympias from Bactria Synopsis: Five years of campaigning brought Alexander the Great to the doorstep of Bactria, but he’d spend much of the next three years – arguably the most difficult of his life – trying to control the region. In this first episode of an occasional series called “The Ancient World – Spotlight” I’m joined by historian and author Tristan Hughes to discuss the uprising of the Sogdian warlord Spitamenes, quite possibly Alexander’s greatest foe, and the later revolts of Hellenic troops upon news of Alexander’s death. Tristan Hughes @BattlesAncients on Twitter Battles of the Ancients website www.turningpointsoftheancientworld.com Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

Synopsis: Cleopatra Thea marries Demetrius II’s brother, Antiochus VII, becoming the simultaneous queen of two Seleucid kings. While Antiochus crushes Tryphon’s revolt and recovers former Seleucid territories, Demetrius is defeated by Mithridates and imprisoned in distant Hyrcania. “But as Antiochus, the brother of Demetrius (II) who was called Soter, was not admitted by any of the cities on account of Tryphon, Cleopatra sent to him, and invited him to marry her, and to take the kingdom. The reasons why she made this invitation were these: That her friends persuaded her to it, and that she was afraid for herself, in case some of the people of Seleucia (Pieria) should deliver up the city to Tryphon. As Antiochus was now come to Seleucia, and his forces increased every day, he marched to fight Tryphon; and having beaten him in battle, he ejected him out of Upper Syria into Phoenicia, and pursued him thither, and besieged him in Dora which was a fortress hard to be taken, whither he had fled.” – Josephus, The Antiquities of the Jews, Book XIII, Chapter 7 “Antiochus well remembered that his father had been hated for his arrogance and his brother despised for his idleness. To avoid falling into the same vices himself, he married Cleopatra, his brother’s widow, and took vigorous action against the cities which had defected at the start of his brother’s reign. He subdued them and added them once more to the territory of his kingdom.” – Justin, Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus, 36.1.9 Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

Synopsis: The Seleucid rebel Diodotus Tryphon uses Thea and Alexander Balas’ young son, Antiochus VI, to capture most of Syria. Though paralyzed at home, Demetrius II embarks on a bold plan to challenge the conquests of Mithridates. “Now there was a certain commander…whose name was Diodotus, who was also called Tryphon, who took notice of the ill-will the soldiers bore toward Demetrius, and went to (Iamblichus) the Arabian, who brought up Antiochus, the son of Alexander…and persuaded him to give him Antiochus, because he would make him king.” – Josephus, The Antiquities of the Jews, Book XIII, Chapter 5 “And so cities in all districts rebelled against (Demetrius’) rule; and to remove the stigma of indolence he decided to attack the Parthians.” – Justin, Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus, 36.1.7 Map of Syria c. 200 BC (courtesy of www.timemaps.com) https://audio.ancientworldpodcast.com/Syria-200bc.png Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

Synopsis: The rediscovery of Ai Khanoum testified to the wealth and power of the Bactrian Kingdom. Mithridates’ conquest of Babylonia is countered by an unlikely coalition. “The cities of Bactria were Bactra, which they also call Zariaspa and through which flows a river of the same name that empties into the Oxus, plus the city of Darapsa, and others more. Among these was a city called Eucratideia, named after its ruler… (The Greeks) also controlled Sogdiana, which lies above and to the east of Bactria between the Oxus River – demarcating Bactrians from Sogdians – and the Jaxartes River, likewise separating the Sogdians from the nomads.” – Strabo, Geography, 11.11.2 “These wise sayings of earlier men, the words of well-known men, are enshrined in the holy Pytho. There Clearchus copied them faithfully, and set them up here in the sanctuary of Kineas, blazing from afar. As a child, be well-behaved. As a youth, be self-controlled. As an adult, be just. As an elder, be wise. As one dying, be without pain.” – Inscription at the Heroon (hero’s tomb) of Kineas, oikistes (founder) of the city of Ai Khanoum, Afghanistan, dated 300 – 250 BC Map of Ai Khanoum and Ashoka Rock Edicts https://audio.ancientworldpodcast.com/Ai_Khanoum.jpg Map of the Eastern Satrapies https://audio.ancientworldpodcast.com/Eastern_Satrapies.jpg Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

Synopsis: On the eastern frontiers of the Seleucid Empire, Parthia, Bactria and the Indo-Greeks struggle for regional supremacy. The stalemate in Syria and murder of Eucratides advance the fortunes of Mithridates. “At about the same time that Mithridates was beginning his rule in Parthia, Eucratides was beginning his in Bactria, both of them great men. But the fortunes of the Parthians prevailed, carrying them to the zenith of their power under this king.” – Justin, Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus, 41.6 “The Yavanas (Greeks) will command, the Kings will disappear. But ultimately the Yavanas, intoxicated with fighting, will not stay in Madhadesa (the Middle Country); there will be undoubtedly a civil war among them, arising in their own country (Bactria), there will be a terrible and ferocious war.” – Gargi-Samhita, Yuga Purana, Chapter 7 Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

Synopsis: With Syria beset by regional enemies, three kings face off at the Battle of the Oenoparos River. The lone survivor, King Demetrius II, inaugurates his reign with the violent destruction of Antioch. “And the king of Egypt gathered together a great host, like the sand that lieth upon the sea shore, and many ships, and went about through deceit to get Alexander’s kingdom, and join it to his own…Wherefore he took his daughter from him, and gave her to Demetrius, and forsook Alexander, so that their hatred was openly known. Then Ptolemy entered into Antioch, where he set two crowns upon his head, the crown of Asia, and of Egypt.” – 1 Maccabees, Chapter 11 Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

Synopsis: Demetrius struggles to preserve his throne but ends up falling in battle. Alexander Balas begins his reign by marrying Ptolemy’s daughter, Cleopatra Thea. While the sons of Demetrius remain a threat, the couple are also forced to confront the growing menace of Parthia. “Then gathered king Alexander great forces, and camped over against Demetrius. And after the two kings had joined battle, Demetrius’ host fled: but Alexander followed after him, and prevailed against them. And he continued the battle very sore until the sun went down: and that day was Demetrius slain.” – 1 Maccabees Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

Synopsis: Demetrius seizes the Syrian throne and stems immediate threats from Media and Judaea. But deposed officials and regional rulers conspire to engineer his downfall. “When it became known that the Romans were ill disposed towards Demetrius, not only the other kings but even some of the satraps subject to him regarded his kingship with scant respect. Of these satraps the most outstanding was a certain Timarchus…By launching many accusations against Demetrius (he) persuaded the senate to enact (a decree making him king). Emboldened by this decree he raised an army of considerable size in Media; he also entered into alliance against Demetrius with Artaxias, the king of Armenia.” – Diodorus Siculus, The Library of History, Book XXXI Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

Synopsis: Lysias attempts to exercise control through the young King Antiochus V, but a deadly incident with a Roman delegation gives hope to the captive Demetrius. Ptolemy Physcon challenges his brother Ptolemy VI for control of Egypt and Cyprus. “They then went on board, and the pilot weighed anchor and started just as the day was breaking, having absolutely no idea of the real state of the case, but believing that he was conveying some soldiers from Menyllus to Ptolemy…It was not until the fourth day after his start that, Demetrius being looked for in vain, the truth was suspected. On the fifth the Senate was hastily summoned to consider the matter, when Demetrius had already cleared the Straits of Messina. The Senate gave up all idea of pursuit.” – Polybius, The Histories, Book XXXI Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

Synopsis: Antiochus the Great restores Seleucid fortunes, but his son Antiochus IV sews the seeds of the Empire’s destruction. “On (Antiochus IV), after reading the dispatch, saying that he desired to consult with his friends on the situation, Popilius did a thing which was looked upon as exceedingly overbearing and insolent. Happening to have a vine stick in his hand, he drew a circle round Antiochus with it, and ordered him to give his answer to the letter before he stepped out of that circumference.” – Polybius, the Histories, Book XXIX Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

Synopsis: Seleucus I Nicator forges the Seleucid Empire, and his descendants spend the next century struggling to preserve his legacy. “In Asia, after the defeat of Demetrius at Gaza in Syria, Seleucus, receiving from Ptolemy no more than eight hundred foot soldiers and about two hundred horse, set out for Babylon.” – Diodorus Siculus, The Library of History, Book XIX Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

with Drew from the Wonders of the World Podcast, where we talk about Palmyra, Odaenathus, and (of course) Queen Zenobia. Enjoy! Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

with the lovely and talented Drew from the Wonders of the World podcast, where we talk about the exotic Roman Emperor Elagabalus, the amazing temple complex at Baalbek, and lots of other fun stuff. Enjoy! And please also check out his other episodes (it helps if you bring a healthy love of Demetrius Poliorcetes 😉 Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

Synopsis: Monotheism, modern Syria, the world’s first romance story, and the end of the Bloodline. “The oasis and town of Palmyra owe their existence to the plentiful spring that runs from Jebel Muntar. This spring dominates a narrow passage in the principal route between the Homs pass and the Euphrates River and is in the heart of the Syrian desert. The oasis furnishes a resting place between Iraq and Central Syria, and it was a primary stop for caravans plying between the Gulf, Iran, and the Mediterranean.” – Khaled Al-Asaad and Adnan Bounni, Palmyra: History, Monuments & Museum Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

Synopsis: Aurelian returns East to crush Palmyrene revolts in Syria and Egypt. The sources relate differing accounts of Zenobia’s ultimate fate. “To the tumultuous throng which crowded under these porticoes the solitude of death has succeeded. The silence of the tomb is substituted for the hum of polite places.” – Count C.F.C deVolney, The Ruins, or Meditations on the Revolutions of Empires “The elevation of Odaenathus and Zenobia appeared to reflect new splendor on their country, and Palmyra, for a while, stood forth the rival of Rome; but the competition was fatal, and ages of prosperity were sacrificed to a moment of glory.” – Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire “When the sand seems to disappear, not beneath the verdure of an oasis but beneath an accumulation of marble and worked stones, silence falls among the travelers…it is then that a man, even the least civilized, feels himself to be small and, despite himself, meditates on the presence of that mighty ruin as upon a mighty sorrow.” – L. Double, 1877 Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

Synopsis: Boxed in by Aurelian’s siege, Zenobia makes a desperate attempt to enlist the support of the Persians. “Palmyra was the last resource of the widow of Odaenathus. She retired within the walls of her capital, made every preparation for a vigorous resistance, and declared, with the intrepidity of a heroine, that the last moment of her reign and of her life should be the same.” – Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire “You have the prospect of such Magnicient Ruines, that if it be Lawful to frame a Conjecture of the Original Beauty of the place, by what is still remaining, I question somewhat whether any City in the World could have challenged Precedence over this in all its Glory.” – W. Halifax, A Relation of a Voyage from Aleppo to Palmyra in Syria, 1695 Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

Synopsis: After a crushing defeat at the Battle of Emesa, Zenobia retreats to Palmyra. Aurelian has a divine encounter at the Temple of Elah Gabal. “After this, the whole issue of the war was decided near Emesa in a mighty battle fought against Zenobia and Zabdas, her ally. When Aurelian’s horsemen, now exhausted, were on the point of breaking their ranks and turning their backs, suddenly by the power of a supernatural agency, as was afterwards made known, a divine form spread encouragement throughout the foot-soldiers and even rallied the horsemen. Zenobia and Zabdas were put to flight, and a victory was won in full.” – The Historia Augusta Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

Synopsis: Aurelian’s vision compels him to spare the defiant citizens of Tyana. As the Romans advance through Anatolia, Zenobia concentrates her forces in Syria, and the two sides finally clash at the Battle of Immae. “As soon as the Emperor was on his march thither, Ancyra submitted to the Romans, and afterwards Tyana, and all the cities between that and Antioch. There finding Zenobia with a large army ready to engage, as he himself also was, he met and engaged her as honor obliged him.” – Zosimus, the History “Zenobia would have ill deserved her reputation, had she indolently permitted the Emperor of the West to approach within a hundred miles of her capital…The Queen of Palmyra animated the armies by her presence, and devolved the execution of her orders on Zabdas, who had already signaled his military talents by the conquest of Egypt. The numerous forces of Zenobia consisted for the most part of light archers, and of heavy cavalry clothed in complete steel.” – Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

Synopsis: Zenobia orders her general Zabdas to capture Anatolia. After subduing the Marcomanni and the Goths, Aurelian makes preparations to reclaim the East. “(Aurelian) was naturally of a severe disposition. A peasant and a soldier, his nerves yielded not easily to the impressions of sympathy, and he could sustain without emotion the sight of tortures and death. Trained from his earliest youth in the exercise of arms, he set too small a value on the life of a citizen, chastised by military execution the slightest offences, and transferred the stern discipline of the camp into the civil administration of the laws.” – Edward Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire “Since there were in the army two tribunes, both named Aurelian…the soldiers game him the nickname of ‘Sword-in-hand,’ so that, if anyone chanced to ask which Aurelian had done anything or performed any exploit, the reply would be made ‘Aurelian Sword-in-hand,’ and so he would be identified.” – The Historia Augusta Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

Synopsis: Zenobia’s armies successfully capture Arabia Petraea and Egypt. The death of Claudius and his brother Quintillus pave the way for the Emperor Aurelian. “Zenobia began to think of extending her dominion, and therefore sent Zabdas into Egypt.” – Zosimus, The History “Nor was the plague confined to the Barbarians alone, but began to infest the Romans, many of whom died, and amongst the rest Claudius, a person adorned with every virtue…Quintillus, the brother of Claudius, was then declared emperor. He had reigned but a few months, and had performed nothing worthy of notice, before Aurelian was raised to the imperial throne.” – Zosimus, The History Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

Synopsis: Following the murder of the Emperor Gallienus, Zenobia successfully defends Palmyra against both Roman and Persian aggression. “Zenobia then took upon her the administration of affairs. She was the wife of Odaenathus, but had the courage of a man, and with the assistance of her husband’s friends, acted in every respect as well as he had done.” – Zosimus, The History “This Heraclianus, however, on setting out against the Persians, was defeated by the Palmyrenes, and lost all the troops he had gathered, for Zenobia was ruling Palmyra and most of the East with the vigour of a man.” – The Historia Augusta Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

Synopsis: Odaenathus declares himself King of Kings, twice besieges the Sasanid capital, and combats Gothic pirates on the Black Sea coast. At the height of his power he’s betrayed and murdered, and Palmyrene power passes to Queen Zenobia. “While Valerian was growing old in Persia, Odaenathus the Palmyrene gathered together an army and restored the Roman power almost to its pristine condition.” – The Historia Augusta “Him will glory attend. He himself, unblemished and great, will rule over the Romans, and the Persians will be powerless.” – The Thirteenth Sibylline Oracle Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

Synopsis: Odaenathus helps drive the Persians from Syria and preserve Gallienus’ throne. After his peace offering is spurned by Shapur, Odaenathus prepares to invade the Sasanid Empire. “Had not Odaenathus, prince of the Palmyrenes, seized the imperial power after the capture of Valerian, when the strength of the Roman state was exhausted, all would have been lost in the East.” – The Historia Augusta Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

Synopsis: After his humiliating defeat at the hands of Shapur, Valerian joins tens of thousands of Roman captives deported to the heartland of Persia. “Going without consideration to Shapur with a small retinue, to treat for a peace, (Valerian) was presently laid hold off by the enemy, and so ended his days in the capacity of a slave among the Persians, to the disgrace of the Roman name in all future times.” – Zosimus, The History “Whatever treatment the unfortunate Valerian might experience in Persia, it is at least certain that the only emperor of Rome who had ever fallen into the hands of the enemy, languished away his life in hopeless captivity.” – Gibbon, History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Chapter X, Part IV Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

Synopsis: Samsigeramus saves Emesa from Sasanid destruction, then proclaims himself Augustus. The arrival of Valerian marks the end of his reign and the elevation of Odaenathus to provincial governor. “And then there shall be a flight of Romans; and thereafter there shall come the priest heard of all round, sent by the sun, from Syria appearing, and by guile shall he accomplish all things. And then too the city of the sun shall offer prayer; and round about her shall the Persians dare the fearful threatenings of the Phoenicians.” – The Sibylline Oracles, Book XIII Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

Synopsis: The revolt of Iotapian shows Eastern nobles the possibilities among the chaos. Shapur’s invasion of Syria drives Samsigeramus to make a bold stand. “As there were at that time many disturbances in the empire, the eastern provinces – which were uneasy, partly owing to the exactions of exorbitant tributes, and partly to their dislike of Priscus, their governor, who was a man of an intolerably evil disposition – wished for innovation, and set up (Iotapian) for emperor.” – Zosimus,The History, Book 1 “So rapid were the motions of the Persian cavalry, that, if we may credit a very judicious historian, the city of Antioch was surprised when the idle multitude were fondly gazing on the amusements of the theatre. The splendid buildings of Antioch, private as well as public, were either pillaged or destroyed; and the numerous inhabitants were put to the sword, or led away into captivity.” – Edward Gibbon, History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Chapter X, Part IV Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

Synopsis: Shortly after Hatra’s destruction, Shapur inherits the Persian Empire. Gordian’s invasion the following year ends in defeat and humiliation for Rome. “When at first we had become established in the Empire, Gordian Caesar raised in all of the Roman Empire a force from the Goth and German realms, and marched on Asoristan against the Empire of Iran and against us. On the border of Asoristan and Misik a great frontal battle occurred. Gordian Caesar was killed and the Roman force was destroyed.” – The Great Inscription of Shapur I, Naqsh-i-Rustam The Roman Near East c. 240AD https://audio.ancientworldpodcast.com/Near_East_240_Region.jpg Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

Synopsis: After the death of Elagabalus, Uranius Antoninus served as High Priest of Elah Gabal in Emesa. From this vantage, he witnessed the birth of Ardeshir’s Persia and the changing fortunes of the Palmyrenes. “Even the name of Tadmor, or Palmyra, by its signification in the Syrian as well as in the Latin language, denoted the multitude of palm-trees which afforded shade and verdure to that temperate region…Palmyra, for a while, stood forth the rival of Rome; but the competition was fatal, and ages of prosperity were sacrificed to a moment of glory.” – Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Chapter XI, Part III Dedicated with great respect to Khaled al-Asaad, Palmyra’s devoted protector Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

Synopsis: Alexander marches East to counter Ardeshir’s invasion, but the conflict ends in a stalemate. A short time later, a legionary rebellion along the Rhine brings the Severan regime to a bloody end. “The lenity of the Emperor confirmed the insolence of the troops; the legions imitated the example of the Guards, and defended their prerogative of licentiousness with the same furious obstinacy. The administration of Alexander was unavailing struggle against the corruption of this age…Fresh mutinies perpetually broke out; his officers were murdered, his authority was insulted, and his life at last sacrificed to the fierce discontents of the army.” – Edward Gibbon, History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Chapter VI, Part IV The Roman War Plan for 233 AD https://audio.ancientworldpodcast.com/SASANID_ALEX.jpg The Bloodline Family Tree (Part 1) https://audio.ancientworldpodcast.com/B33_Bloodline01.pdf The Bloodline Family Tree (Part 2) https://audio.ancientworldpodcast.com/B39_Bloodline02.pdf Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

Synopsis: Overseen by his mother and grandmother, Severus Alexander’s early reign was marked by wisdom and temperance. A decade later, a Sasanid invasion would test both Rome and its emperor. “When Alexander received the empire, the appearance and the title of Emperor were allowed him, but the management and control of imperial affairs were in the hands of his women, and they undertook a more moderate and more equitable administration.” – Herodian, History of the Roman Empire from the Death of Marcus Aurelius to the Accession of Gordian III, Book VI, Chapter I “(Ardeshir) did not remain quiet, however, nor stay on his side of the Tigris River, but, after scaling its banks and crossing the borders of the Roman empire, he overran Mesopotamia and threatened Syria. The entire continent opposite Europe, separated from it by the Aegean Sea and the Propontic Gulf, and the region called Asia, he wished to recover for the Persian empire…When the Eastern governors revealed these developments in their dispatches, Alexander was greatly disturbed by these unanticipated tidings, particularly since, raised from childhood in an age of peace, he had spent his entire life in urban ease and comfort.” – Herodian, History of the Roman Empire from the Death of Marcus Aurelius to the Accession of Gordian III, Book VI, Chapter II Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

Synopsis: Ardeshir defeats Artabanus in battle and claims the Parthian Empire for the Sasanids. After a failed attempt to conquer Armenia, he sets his sights on the Roman East. “Then (Ardeshir) came to battle with Artabanus, killed the entire army of the latter, seized their wealth, property, horses, and portable lodges, and settled himself in Istakhr. He collected soldiers in large numbers from Kerman, Mokristan, Isfahan, and different districts of Fars, and came to fight with Artabanus himself. So Artabanus sent for soldiers and provisions from different frontiers…But as the Glory of the Kayanians (Achaemenids) was with Ardeshir, the latter gained success. He killed Artabanus, whose entire wealth and property fell into the hands of Ardeshir, who married Artabanus’s daughter, and went back to Fars.” – The Book of Deeds of Ardeshir Son of Pabag, Chapter IV “Artaxerxes, a Persian, having conquered the Parthians in three battles and killed their king, Artabanus, made a campaign against Hatra, which he endeavored to take as a base for attacking the Romans. He did make a breach in the wall but, as he lost a number of soldiers through an ambuscade, he transferred his position to Media. Of this district, as also of Parthia, he acquired no small portion, partly by force and partly by intimidation, and then marched against Armenia. Here he suffered a reverse at the hands of the natives, some Medes, and the children of Artabanus, and either fled (as some say) or (as others assert) retired to prepare a larger expedition. He accordingly became a source of fear for us.” – Cassius Dio, Rome, Book 80 Map of the Roman-Sasanid Frontier c. 232 AD: https://audio.ancientworldpodcast.com/SASANID_FINAL.jpg Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

Synopsis: Elagabalus spearheads a religious revolution in Rome, but his unpopular rule drives Julia Maesa to enact a back-up plan. “To this temple, as to the common center of religious worship, the Imperial fanatic attempted to remove the Ancilia, the Palladium, and all the sacred pledges of the faith of Numa. A crowd of inferior deities attended in various stations the majesty of the god of Emesa; but his court was still imperfect, till a female of distinguished rank was admitted to his bed. Pallas had been first chosen for his consort; but as it was dreaded lest her warlike terrors might affront the soft delicacy of a Syrian deity, the Moon, adorned by the Africans under the name of Astarte, was deemed a more suitable companion for the Sun.” – Edward Gibbon, History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Volume 1, Chapter 6 Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

Synopsis: Deception, good fortune, and Macrinus’ failings allow the Severans to retake the Roman throne. As Emperor, Elagabalus makes plans to install the black stone of Elah Gabal in the Capital. “(Elagabalus and Severus Alexander) were priests of the sun god, whom their countrymen worship under the Phoenician name Elagabalus. A huge temple was erected to this god, lavishly decorated with gold, silver, and costly gems. Not only is this god worshipped by the natives, but all the neighboring rulers and kings send generous and expensive gifts to him each year. No statue made by man in the likeness of the god stands in the temple, as in Greek and Roman temples. The temple does, however, contain a huge black stone with a pointed end and round base in the shape of a cone. The Phoenicians solemnly maintain that this stone came down from Zeus; pointing out certain small figures in relief, they assert that it is an unwrought image of the sun, for naturally that is what they wish to see.” – Herodian, History of the Roman Empire from the Death of Marcus Aurelius to the Accession off Gordian III, Book V, Chapter III Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

Synopsis: King Artabanus of Parthia gathers his forces to seek revenge on Rome. Usurpation and war gain the Sasanids control over the southern territory of Fars. “Macrinus, seeing that Artabanus was exceedingly angry at the way he had been treated and had invaded Mesopotamia with a large force, at first of his own accord sent him captives and used friendly language, urging him to accept peace and laying the blame for the past on (Caracalla). But the other would not entertain his proposition, and furthermore bade him build up the forts and demolished cities, abandon Mesopotamia entirely and offer satisfaction in general, but particularly for the damage to the royal tombs. For, trusting in the large force that he had gathered, and despising Macrinus as an unworthy emperor, he gave reign to his wrath and expected that even without Roman consent he could accomplish whatever he wished.” – Cassius Dio, Rome, Book 78 Map of the Parthian Empire https://audio.ancientworldpodcast.com/PARTHIA_FINAL.jpg Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices