The Science of Everything Podcast

In this episode we explore the diversity of the animal kingdom. I first discuss the history of taxonomy and give an overview of some key concepts such as morphological similarity, phylogenetic analysis, systematics, cladistics, binomial classification, and the taxonomic hierarchy. Then follows an explanation of the diversity of and relationships between the major animal phyla, including arthropods, echinoderms, molluscs, and many others, with special emphasis is given to the classes and orders in the phylum of chordata (vertebrates).

An overview of the structure and function of proteins. Beginning with a discussion of some key research methods for studying proteins, including column chromatography, electrophoresis, and x-ray crystallography, we then discuss the structure of proteins, with a focus on secondary structure, motifs, structural domains, and quaternary structure. The episode concludes with a look at protein function, including protein folding, denaturation, enzymatic function, and allosteric regulation. Recommended pre-requisites are Episode 18: Biochemistry Basics, and Episode 10: The Cell. Episode 32: Light and Optics may also be helpful for the crystallography portion.

Concluding the brief exploration of language begun last time, this episode examines semantics, including the distinction between sense and reference and different types of utterances, pragmatics, including conversational maxims and implicatures, and sociolinguistics, including prestige dialects and speech acts. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 66: An Overview of Language Part 1.

In this first of a two-part episode, I discuss the phenomenon of language. Here we consider phonetics, how sounds are produced and articulated, phonology, how different sounds are distinguished from one another and treated across different languages, morphology, how sounds are combined into units of meaning called morphemes, and in turn how these are combined into words, and syntax, how words are put together in accordance with particular rules to form sentences.

An introduction to the concept of money, including its uses, purpose, and a brief account of its history. I discuss the notion of money as a medium of exchange, a unit of account, and a store of value, and some of the properties that make particular goods useful as money. I also discuss various measures of the money supply, and briefly outline the difference between the monetary base and money created through the fractional reserve system. I discuss inflation, including its definition, causes, and effects on the economy, before concluding with a brief look at interest rates and exchange rates.

A look at how we understand and think about semantic knowledge. I discuss semantic and propositional networks, the spreading activation model, present some evidence in favour of these models, and discuss the promising new approach of connectionism. I also examine how we classify objects into categories, looking at prototype and exemplar theories, family resemblance, graded membership, and the theory-theory of concepts.

An overview of the structure and function of the nervous system, including a discussion of the autonomic and somatic divisions of the peripheral nervous system, the spinal cord, and the brain. I discuss the major regions and structures of the brain, including the brainstem, the cerebellum, the cerebral cortex, and various subcortical structures. I conclude with some brief remarks about lateralization and the relationship between brain size and IQ.

An overview of organic chemistry, beginning with a discussion of the nature of organic compounds, the history of vitalism and its influence on the development of organic chemistry, and what makes carbon so special. I then discuss some important concepts in organic chemistry, including IUPAC nomenclature, functional groups, aromaticity, fullerenes, polymers, and organic synthesis. Recommended prelistening is Episode 15: Chemical Bonding, and Episode 23: Chemical Reactions.

A discussion of the basic concepts of magnetism, including magnetic fields, magnetic poles, and electromagnets. I also discuss the ultimate subatomic source of magnetic force in the phenomenon of electric spin, and explain how this leads to the different types of magnetic materials: ferromagnets, paramagnets, and diamagnets. I conclude with some applications of electromagnetism, including electric generators and motors, transformers, and a brief discussion of Maxwell's equations. Recommended prelistening is Episode 43: Electric Forces and Fields.

An analysis of memory, including a discussion of the different types of memory, the capacity of short term memory, how environment and depth of processing influences learning and recall, the relationship between memory and familiarity, and different types of amnesia. Complements Episode 20: The Reliability of Memory. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a paypal donation or becoming a patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

A analysis of the sense of smell, beginning with the nose, the olfactory epithelium and the different types of receptor proteins, and progressing through the processes of sensory transduction, transmission of neural signals to the olfactory bulb, and thence into the higher regions of the brain. I also discuss the sense of smell in humans compared to that of other animals, with a focus on the special abilities of bloodhounds. Recommended prerequisite is Episode 38: Neurons and Synapses.

A discussion of how our sense of taste works, including an overview of the basic anatomy of the tongue and relevant brain circuits, a discussion of taste buds and how they work, a review of the five basic tastes and how they differ, and a look at some other interesting topics such as pungency and aftertaste. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 10: The Cell and Episode 38: Neurons and Synapses.

We begin with a discussion of basic electrical phenomena such as current, voltage, resistance and power, before applying these ideas to the analysis of circuits, including series and parallel circuits. We then apply these concepts to understand a number of interesting phenomena, including light bulbs, lightning, and why electricity can be dangerous. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 43: Electric Forces and Fields.

A discussion of the notion of trade and exchange, including the purpose of these activities, the gains from trade, and the role of comparative advantage. I also examine some recent trends in global trade, and briefly discuss some of the major global trade institutions such as the WTO and World Bank and their role in attempting to reduce trade barriers. The episode concludes with a brief discussion of the concept of 'Buy Local'. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 12: The Price System.

Continuing on from the previous episode, I discuss some of the biological determinants of gender differences, including hormonal effects on interests and behaviour, and structural differences in the brain. I then examine a number of more specific topics pertinent to the issue of gender differences, including occupational segregation, women in science and technology, emotional differences, and differences in conversational form and topics.

In this first of our two part series on sex and gender, I discuss the scientific evidence regarding some of the major behavioral and social differences between men and women, and examine the degree to which these can be explained by differential socialization and bias and discrimination. I also discuss the treatment of women in the workplace and how gender stereotypes serve to inhibit female advancement into higher positions.

We begin with a discussion of the essential nature of sound as pressure waves in air, discussing matters such as the speed of sound, harmonic frequencies, loudness, standing waves, and the Doppler effect. We then apply these basic principles to understand the nature of music, and why different musical instruments sound different. Also discussed are the various aspects of music, including beat, pitch, melody, timbre, etc, and the differences between woodwind, percussion, brass, and string instruments. Recommended prelistening is Episode 24: Vibrations and Waves

We begin by discussing some of the basic principles of image formation in lenses and mirrors, including reflection in flat mirrors and curved mirrors, use of ray diagrams, real and virtual images, and the different ways in which images can be formed. These basic principles are then applied to gain an understanding of a number of interesting optical phenomena, including mirages, rainbows, and thin-film interference. I conclude the episode with a discussion of optical magnification, and how this is used in telescopes and microscopes.

A discussion of acids and basis, including a definition and description of the concepts of acidity and basicity, a look at the relationship between the concepts of strength, concentration, and corrosivity, a discussion of weak acids and acid-base equilibria, and an explanation of pH and how buffer solutions act to stabalise pH levels in solution.

In this special episode we examine a number of popular myths, misconceptions, and faulty understandings that are widely held about various scientific questions. Topics covered include misunderstandings about black holes, common misconceptions about genetics, physics mistakes perpetrated in films, popular myths about various animals, and a look at some of the misconceptions about psychology and the mind. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a paypal donation or becoming a patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

A discussion of the effect of market outcomes on firm behavior, consumer welfare, and market outcomes. I examine perfect competition, monopoly, oligopoly, and monopolistic competition, comparing their outcomes and when each type of structure tends to occur. Also includes a discussion of cartels, when they form, and why they tend to fail. Recommended prerequisites are Episode 48: Theory of the Firm, Episode 16: Profits and Competition, and Episode 12: The Price System.

A discussion of the nature of the firm, the different types of firms, and the reasons for the existence of firms. This leads to an overview of the objectives of firms, including decisions regarding how to produce and the profit maximizing quantity to produce, and a discussion of the implications of this behavior for consumers and the economy at large. Recommended prelistening are Episode 12: The Price System and Episode 16: Profits and Competition.

In part 3 of our journey through the visual system, we discuss the structure and function of the Primary Visual Cortex, including an analysis of occular dominance columns, orientation columns, and the six cortical layers. I also cover higher cortical regions involved in visual processing, including the V2, V3, V4, and IT areas, and how these regions are divided into distinct 'what' and 'where' processing pathways.

Resuming from where we left off last time, we continue our journey through the visual system by explaining the structure and function of the bipolar and ganglion cells in the retina, including their somewhat complex receptive fields. I then discuss the optic nerve and cross over of information from different visual hemifields at the optic chiasm. We end this part of our journey with a look at the lateral geniculate nucleus, and how it is structurally organised to process different types of visual information in different locations.

We commence our grand journey to understand the visual system by examining the eye, its anatomical structure and physiological properties. I discuss image formation in the eye, including an explanation of the role of the lens, iris, and cornea. I also explain the phototransduction, the fascinating molecular process by which photons falling on the retina are converted into neural signals that the brain can interpret. Recommended prelistening: Episode 18 - Biochemistry Basics, Episode 25 - Tissues, Organs and Systems, Episode 32 - Light and Optics, Episode 38 - Neurons and Synapses.

A discussion of the cell cycle and cell division, beginning with an overview of chromosomes and chromosome structure, and then proceeding through a detailed discussion of the G1, S, and G2 stages of interphase, and the prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase and cytokinesis phases of M-phase. I conclude the episode with a discussion of cell-cycle regulation, including the role of cyclin-dependent kinases, cell checkpoints, and growth factors. Recommended prerequisites are Episode 10: The Cell, Episode 18: Biochemistry Basics, and Episodes 34 and 35: DNA Structure and Function.

An overview of the basics of electric charges, electric fields, and electric potential energy. I also discuss how objects become charged, how charged particles interact via Coulomb’s Law, how electroscopes work, and how batteries generate voltage. Recommended prerequisites are Episode 9: Matter and Molecules, and Episode 17: Energy, Work, and Momentum.

A discussion of the properties and behaviour of gases, focusing on the kinetic theory of gases and the ideal gas law. I also discuss the thermodynamic behaviours of gases, gas partial pressures, and PV diagrams. Recommended prerequisites are Episode 9: Matter and Molecules and Episode 13: Newtonian Mechanics.

A discussion of the behaviour of fluids, including an overview of the concepts of fluid pressure and Pascal’s Principle. I also discuss Archimedes’ principle of buoyancy and its application to why objects float, and Bernoulli’s Principle of the relationship between fluid speed and pressure, and how this can be applied (and misapplied) to explaining how aeroplanes fly. Recommended prerequisites: Episode 13 Newtonian Mechanics, Episode 27 Intermolecular Bonds and Phase Transitions.

A science-based discussion of the issue of gun control in the United States. After reviewing some basic statistics about crime and gun ownership, I examine the empirical evidence concerning the relationship between gun ownership and violent crime, highlighting the many difficulties associated with such studies and the limitations of this literature. I then discuss some more specific aspects of the gun control debate, including the question of who commits most violent crimes, how deadly guns are compared to other weapons, and how criminals acquire guns. I conclude with a discussion of the evidence for and against various types of gun control measures, and some thoughts on contemporary US gun culture and its impact on gun policy. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a paypal donation or becoming a patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

An overview of the state as understood in political science, including a discussion of the meaning of terms like ‘state’, ‘country’ and ‘nation’, and a summary of some of the different types of states, including unitary, federal, and confederal. I also discuss some of the core principles of government in modern states, including sovereignty, the rule of law, separation of powers, and separation of church and state.

A discussion of the neuron, the fundamental cell of the brain and the nervous system, including an overview of its morphology and physiology. I also discuss the generation and propagation of action potentials, including the role of graded potentials, voltage-dependant ion channels, and myelination. The episode concludes with an overview of synapses and the important role of neurotransmitters.

An overview of oxidation, reduction, and redox reactions, including a discussion of the definitions of these basic concepts, and an explanation of how they relate to oxidation number and electronegativity. We then apply these concepts to several common examples of redox reactions, including combustion, rust, batteries, fuel cells, and respiration.

A discussion of the theory of consumer choice in economics, including an outline of consumer preferences and the axiomatic assumptions economists make about them, a discussion of the realism of these assumptions, and an explanation of how preferences are used to derive consumer utility functions and demand curves. These basic concepts are then applied to understand consumer behaviour in an analysis of substitution and income effects, complementary and substitute goods, and elasticity of demand. Recommended prerequisites include Episode 12: The Price System and Episode 16: Profits and Competition.

Continuing on from episode 34, I discuss in detail the processes of DNA replication, transcription from DNA to RNA, and the translation of RNA to proteins. In doing so I examine the molecules and structures involved, the mechanisms of their operation, and how all the processes work together to facilitate the production of proteins from DNA.

In part 1 of this two-part episode, I discuss the double helix shape of DNA, the structure of nucleotides, base-paring between nitrogenous bases, the genetic code, codons, DNA reading frames, the one-gene one-polypeptide hypothesis, and the Central Dogma of Molecular Biology. This basic structural knowledge will provide the basis for a more detailed discussion of the processes of DNA replication, transcription and translation in part 2 of this topic. Recommended background knowledge of episodes 10 (The Cell) and 18 (Biochemistry Basics).

A discussion of three of the most chilling experiments in the field of social psychology: the Ash Conformity Experiment, the Stanford Prison Experiment, and the Milgram Obedience Experiment. In each case I discuss the motivation and setup of the experiment, outline the results, discuss replications and variations of the original experiment, and end with a look at the implications of the experiment for understanding the darker side of human nature.

A discussion of the nature of light and its interactions with matter, including a journey through the history of our understanding of light from Newton’s corpuscular theory through early wave theory and up to the modern wave-particle duality understanding. Following this is an analysis of the various ways light interacts with matter, including absorption, reflection, transmission, refraction, dispersion, and transparency.

An analysis of liquids and their behaviour when mixed with other substances, incorporating a look at solutions, mixtures, colloids and suspensions. Special emphasis is placed on solutions, with a more detailed discussion of solubility, saturation, molarity and bubble formation.

An overview of the various forms of government that have existed throughout history and across the world, including a discussion of anarchy, democracy, monarchy, autocracy, and various forms of oligarchy, giving some key characteristics and important examples of each. Also includes an introduction to the principles of classification and political comparison. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a paypal donation or becoming a patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

Continuing on from episode 28 on Classical Conditioning, in this episode I discuss another form of learning called Operant Conditioning, including the concepts of reinforcers, punishers, shaping, and schedules of reinforcement. I then apply Operant Conditioning theory to understand phenomena such as animal training and how punishments can be effectively used. The episode concludes with a brief look at a third form of learning, Observational Learning.

A discussion of classical conditioning, including an analysis of its key components of the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli and responses, the acquisition process, extinction, recovery, generalization, and discrimination. I also discuss some applications of classical conditioning to understand a wide variety of behaviors, including taste aversion, drug tolerance, sexual fetishes, and emotional responses.

An explanation of the forces and mechanisms of intermolecular bonding, including dispersion forces, dipole-dipole bonding and hydrogen bonds, with an application of these mechanisms in analysing surface tension. This is followed by a discussion of how phase transitions occur, focusing on evaporation, condensation, boiling and melting. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 15: Chemical Bonding.

A brief overview of all the human organ systems, including their major components and functions. Also includes an examination of how the organ systems work together to promote the proper functioning of the organism. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 25: Organs, Tissues and Systems.

An overview of the various levels of biological organisation, from the atomic and molecular level through cells, tissues, organs, and up to populations and ecosystems. Also includes a more detailed examination of the structure and function of the four main types of human tissue, including epithelial, connective, muscle and nervous tissues.

An overview of the basic principles of wave phenomena, including a definition of waves, a discussion of wave mediums, wavelength, frequency and amplitude. I also discuss a variety of interesting wave behaviours including interference, polarization, resonance, reflection, absorption, refraction, diffraction and standing waves. This episode will form the foundation for later discussion of sound and light.

An introduction to chemical reactions, including an overview of chemical equations, stoichiometry, thermochemistry, and reversible reactions. Also includes a discussion of collision theory to explain how and why chemical reactions occur.

A journey through Earth’s location in the universe, including a discussion of the Earth-moon system, the sun and planets of the solar system, nearby stars, the Milky Way Galaxy, the Local Group, clusters and superclusters, the large-scale structure of the universe, and speculations as to what may lie beyond.

An introduction to the basic concepts of biological evolution, including an overview of Charles Darwin’s contributions, a discussion of heredity, a summary of all the major evolutionary mechanisms, and a review of all the major lines of evidence supporting evolutionary theory.

An analysis of the various biases that effect the accuracy of human memory, including a discussion of spatial memory distortions, the impact of schema on memory, source monitoring failure, and the misinformation effect. I also discuss the interesting research regarding false memories, eyewitness memory, and flashbulb memories. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a paypal donation or becoming a patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything