The Partial Historians

Rome seems to be an impasse. Facing war on all fronts and with escalating crisis between the patricians and the plebeians the place of Rome in the Italian world is at the brink. It’s 445 BCE and the republic is still young enough to fail. How will Rome face the chaos coming at them from outside while weakened from their own internal conflict? Tune in to find out!Secret MeetingsIn order to get Rome motivated for war, the internal problems need to be resolved first. What better time then for some of the more senior Romans (who also just happen to be patrician) to get together for a clandestine meeting… Some important decisions are reached but despite the secrecy of the meeting, it does not go unnoticed. Is Rome really more of an oligarchy than it likes to think it is?Canuleius’ SpeechOn the other side of town, the tribune of the plebs, Gaius Canuelius, is getting fired up about the restrictive marriage laws that are part of the Twelve Tables. And boy does he have a speech to make about it! He digs deep into Rome’s history right back to the kings to explain to the plebeians how their exclusion from marriage to patricians is offensive. He explores the way Rome is in a process of constant adaption and change with examples to support his case that excluding plebeians is insupportable.Military Tribunes with Consular PowerIn a time of great struggle innovation becomes a necessity. With Rome facing threats from just about every direction, the consuls won’t be able to be everywhere they are needed commanding armies. Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus view the development of military tribunes with consular power as part of the patricians trying to placate the plebeians. But is there more to it than that? We delve into the background of the role, what it means for the structure of Roman governance, and compare the sources on the subject.Tune in forThe suggestion that the plebeians have the right to introduce lawsDastardly plans from the the patriciansSome weighty demands for the repel of the marriage ban and access to governing power for the plebeiansA shocking moment of patricians conceding to the plebeians!Our PlayersConsuls 445 BCEM. Genucius – f. – n. Augurinus – Pat.C. (or Agripp.) Curtius – f. – n. Philo (or Chilo) Pat.Notable PatriciansGaius Claudius, uncle of the infamous Appius ClaudiusTitus Quinctius L. f. L. n. Capitolinus BarbatusL. Valerius P. f. P. n. Potitus (Poplicola?) – Pat.M. Horatius M. f. L. (or P.) n. BarbatusTitus Genucius, the brother of the consul!Tribune of the PlebsC. CanuleiusC. Furnius SourcesDr G reads Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities, 11.55-60.Dr Rad reads Livy ab Urbe Condita 4.2-6.Broughton, T. R. S., Patterson, M. L. 1951. The Magistrates of the Roman Republic Volume 1: 509 B.C. – 100 B.C. (The American Philological Association)Cornell, T. J. 1995. The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000-264 BC) (Taylor & Francis)Forsythe, G. 2006. A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War(University of California Press) For our full show notes and edited transcripts, head on over to https://partialhistorians.com/Support the showPatreonKo-FiRead our booksRex: The Seven Kings of RomeYour Cheeky Guide to the Roman Empire Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

Who has the right to rule Rome? Who should have the right? In this episode, we tackle one of the major developments of the so-called ‘Conflict of the Orders' as the plebs push for new laws that would give them greater political power. The archaeology confirms that the mid-fifth century was tough for Rome, so the political unrest may be reflecting this difficult time.Episode 122 – The Right to Rule RomeRome Gets GreedyIn our last episode on the year 446 BCE, Rome was kicking some serious butt. The Aequians and Volscians could not sit down for WEEKS! Sadly, these military victories were undermined by a foolish call by the Roman people. The cities of Aricia and Ardea had been engaged in a dispute over boundaries and appealed to Rome to settle their differences. The Romans got a bit greedy and decided that they had the rightful claim to this land, leaving neither city satisfied.Their land-lust would come back to haunt them in 445 BCE when revolt brakes out in Ardea. Oh, and did we mention that the Veientes, the Aequians and the Volscians were also attacking Roman territory? With the enemies at every gate, the Romans needed to present a strong, united front and march out to deal with these tiresome foes immediately. At least, that’s what the consuls and patricians want. The plebs have other ideas.The Tribunes Strike BackLivy and Dionysius provide different accounts of how the internal politics of 445 played out, but there were seemingly two major sticking points for the plebs and Caius Canuleius before they were willing to let the levy go ahead. Firstly, they wanted the very unpopular law that forbid intermarriage between the patricians and the plebeians overturned. This law was allegedly the brainchild of the second decemvirate, so thanks again Appius Claudius. Secondly, the plebeians wanted a share in the consulship. There were two consuls, so why not have one patrician and one plebeian?Often in ancient Rome, our depictions of married couples come from funerary monuments. This is a funerary monument of Gaius Volumnius and his wife (name potentially lost based on the remains)Italy, c. 1-50 CE (so much later than our period as well!). Now in the Altes Museum. Photo by Anagoria via Wikimedia CommonsThe patricians are HORRIFIED by both suggestions. Intermarriage would pollute the patrician bloodlines and also have dangerous implications for the auspices (reading bird behaviour to interpret the will of the gods). It would also lead to children who belonged to neither the patricians or the plebeians, and yet was somehow both. As for the consulship, it would clearly be a disaster to hand over such power to the plebs. Look at Icilius, or Canuleius himself – troublemakers, the lot of them!The ‘Conflict of the Orders' Enters a New Phase This is one of the most confusing developments yet in the so-called ‘Conflict of the Orders', especially as we can't be sure exactly who the patricians and plebeians really were or when these groups developed! It can be hard to tell when our sources are projecting their own first century BCE understandings back into the early Republic. With the tribunes and the consuls swearing that they would rather DIE than give in, 445 BCE is shaping up to be a very conflicted year for the Romans….Our PlayersConsuls 446 BCET. Quinctius L. f. L. n. Capitolinus Barbatus (Pat.) cos. IV (471, 468, 465)Agrippa Furius – f. – n. Fusus Pat. (59)Angry Old Plebeian Man Publius ScaptiusConsuls 445 BCEM. Genucius – f. – n. Augurinus – Pat.C. (or Agripp.) Curtius – f. – n. Philo (or Chilo) Pat.Tribune of the PlebsC. CanuleiusC. Furnius  SourcesDr G reads Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities, 11.52-54.Dr Rad reads Livy ab Urbe Condita 4.1-2.Broughton, T. R. S., Patterson, M. L. 1951. The Magistrates of the Roman Republic Volume 1: 509 B.C. – 100 B.C. (The American Philological Association)Cornell, T. J. 1995. The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000-264 BC) (Taylor & Francis)Forsythe, G. 2006. A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War(University of California Press) Sound CreditsThanks to Orange Free Sounds, BBC Sounds, Fesliyan Studios, Gfx Sounds, Free Sound Library, Orange Free Sounds, and Sound Bible for sound effects and the wonderful Bettina Joy de Guzman for our theme music. This episode is dedicated to a very special group of students who are out there somewhere whom Dr Rad may or may not have taught recently...This third century CE Roman gold ring is thought to have been used as betrothal or wedding band. While we're not sure if similar styles or rings were in use in the 440s BCE, the concept of being connected through a ring has a long history even as far back as Rome. For more on Roman rings, you might enjoy this article.For our full show notes and edited transcripts, head on over to https://partialhistorians.com/Support the showPatreonKo-FiRead our booksRex: The Seven King

We are thrilled to bring you an exploration of the relationship between the ancient world and metal music. We’re joined by Dr Jeremy J. Swist an expert in the subject. Dr Swist is a lecturer in the Department of Classical Studies at Brandeis University. He holds a PhD in Classics looking at the Reception of the seven kings of Rome in imperial historiography from Tiberius to Theodosius. His research covers everything from historiography to the classical reception in metal music.Special Episode – Classical Reception in Metal Music with Dr Jeremy J. SwistIt’s a big topic and we delve into many facets of reception. One important area is thinking about Roman virtus as it is explored in metal. We also consider the connections between metal music and sword-and-sandals cinema. AND the way in which this genre of music can be a way of exploring the edges of human experience.There may even be a discussion of Spartacus!There’s lots of bands mentioned including:Black Sabbath (of course!)KreatorBathoryVenomEx DeosAdeStormlordADXAutokratorJag PanzerSound BarrierAngel Witch, and more. Jeremy has very kindly compiled a Spotify list for you to enjoy as well.The Power of the VisualThe connection between heavy metal and the ancient world is not just about the lyrics or the stylisation on stage though. One of the primary ways classical reception happens is through album artwork.Consider the depiction of Poseidon on the cover of Wrathblade’s 2017 album God of the Deep Unleashed. Poseidon cuts an incredibly fearsome and muscular figure as he looms in a giant wave above to destroy an ancient town.Meanwhile the French band Autokrator have worked in twists on Roman imperialism with the cover of the eponymous album from 2014 and then their latest album released in 2021. The 2014 album is a wash of red colour over a black background. Before the Colosseum is a fearsome, slightly skeletal sculpture of a Roman…Autokrator's 2021 album cover for Persecution shifts the colour scheme to greys over a black background. The building in the background you may just recognise from the Roman forum while the sculpture draws references to Marcus Aurelius.Coming to Grips with MetalNeither of us know much about metal music so this was a real treat for us to learn more about the rich references to the ancient world in this genre. So join us for an engaging and insightful conversation.If you're looking for even more metal after listening to this episode, you might want to check out the upcoming conference Heavy Metal and Global Premodernity which is being co-run by none other that Dr Jeremy J. Swist and Dr C Naylor Davis.For our full show notes and edited transcripts, head on over to https://partialhistorians.com/Support the showPatreonKo-FiRead our booksRex: The Seven Kings of RomeYour Cheeky Guide to the Roman Empire Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

The year 446 BCE has it all – battles, civil strife, virtus, dynamic leadership… Rome is certainly on a better path after the mysterious and seemingly disastrous 447 BCE.Episode 121 – Strength in UnityEnemies at the GateThe atmosphere in Rome at the beginning of 446 BCE was tense. In 447 BCE, the magistrates had not been able to restrain the patricians from antagonizing the plebeians. By 446 BC, this conflict had not been resolved. To complicate matters further, the Aequians and the Volscians were trying to take advantage of the civil unrest. Their combined forces started ravaging the lands of the Latins. The lack of any retaliation then encouraged the Aequians and Volscians to grow bolder and move ever closer to Rome herself.This situation could not be tolerated. Romans fighting each other, rather than taking out the enemy? Fortunately, one of the consuls, Titus Quinctius, has a lot of experience and he is not afraid to use it. Will Quinctius and his colleague, Agrippa Furius, be able to save Rome from herself? Will they rediscover strength in unity?Social position was instantly recognisable from dress. What you wore was a reflection of your privileges or lack thereof. For Rome to develop as a society, every person needed to be valued.Image: Wikimedia CommonsThings to look out forTitus Quinctius’ masterful display of rhetoricThe Romans return to the battlefield and face the Aequians and VolsciansAgrippa Furius’ moment of virtusDr Rad and Dr G temporarily forgetting where the city of Corbio was located (it was to the South East of Rome and became a bone of contention between Rome and the Aequains)Dr Rad inventing a new word to describe the plebeians and tribunes of the plebs – the Trebeians!Our PlayersConsuls 446 BCET. Quinctius L. f. L. n. Capitolinus Barbatus (Pat.) cos. IV (471, 468, 465)Agrippa Furius – f. – n. Fusus (Pat.)QuaestorsL? Valerius (Poplicola?) Potitus (Pat.)Mam. Aemilius (Mamercinus) (Pat.)Legates, LieutenantsSp. Postumius Albus (Regillensis) (Pat.)P. Sulpicius (Camerinus Cornutus?) (Pat.)SourcesDr G reads Frontinus, Strategemata, 2.8.2Dr Rad reads Livy ab Urbe Condita 3.66-70.Broughton, T. R. S., Patterson, M. L. 1951. The Magistrates of the Roman Republic Volume 1: 509 B.C. – 100 B.C. (The American Philological Association)Cornell, T. J. 1995. The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000-264 BC) (Taylor & Francis)Forsythe, G. 2006. A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War(University of California Press) Sound CreditsThanks to Orange Free Sounds, BBC Sounds, Fesliyan Studios, Pixabay, and Sound Bible for sound effects and the incomparable Bettina Joy de Guzman for our theme music. Addition music in the episode is ‘Beat’ provided by https://freebeats.io, produced by White Hot.Roman Legionnaires by Hans Splinter from flickr. Used under Creative Commons licence.For our full show notes and edited transcripts, head on over to https://partialhistorians.com/Support the showPatreonKo-FiRead our booksRex: The Seven Kings of RomeYour Cheeky Guide to the Roman Empire Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

After spending many, many episodes on the events of 449 BCE, we are now flying through multiple years in ONE episode! Ah, the ups and downs of the early Republic. Tune in to find out what happened to Rome in 448, 447 and 446 BCE.Episode 120 – Rebels Without a CauseThe Year 448 BCEThis has to be one of the briefest and most mysterious years on record. Now that we are out of the decemvirate, there are two new consuls on the block – neither of whom have held the position before. One may even have Etruscan ancestry. This may indicate that experienced and suitable candidates are hard to come by now that the members of the decemvirate are either dead or exiled. This pair of consuls are quite happy to sit on the fence between the patricians and plebeians and have an uneventful year.Something very unusual did take place in this year. Livy records that two patrician ex-consuls were elected to serve as tribunes of the plebs! There is some doubt about the accuracy of this claim, but Livy’s account tells us that some of the new tribunes consulted with the patricians when co-opting colleagues after the election fell short at the end of 449 BCE. What a world we live in! One of the tribunes is most displeased, and Lucius Trebonius pushes for a law that stipulates that elections need to continue until no fewer than ten tribune of the plebs are elected. Trebonius is given the cognomen ‘Asper’ (prickly or truculent) in recognition of his fight to keep patrician power in check. A prickly pear, which seems like an apt image for Lucius Trebonius Asper. Image Courtesy of Ken Bosma on Flickr. The 447 BCEThe new consuls, Geganius and Iulius, just want there to be less tension between the social orders in 447, but it is hard to keep everyone happy in this situation. In Livy, they manage to calm the plebeians down by suspending a levy for a war against the Volscians and Aequians (although Dr G has an inscription that indicates otherwise). After all, is this war really necessary? The enemies of Rome only want to fight when they sense that Rome is distracted by domestic turmoil, and there’s none of that around now…. Right? Right, guys?Unfortunately for this consular duo, the young patricians are back on the scene and causing all sorts of trouble. They start with general abuse of the plebeians, but it quickly escalates to violence – even against the tribunes themselves! With the Valerio-Horatian law about the sacrosanctity of tribunes having JUST been passed, you would think that the patricians would have to show more respect. Clearly all is not well in the city of Rome… at least for plebeians!James Dean, who did not live in ancient Rome, but who embodies that rebellious spirit of the young patricians… in our imaginations! Our Players The Consuls 448 BCELars (or Sp.) HERMINIUS – Cortinesanus (Pat.) – T. VERGINIUS – Tricostus Caeliomontanus (Pat.)Tribunes of the Plebs 448 BCEA Aternius – Varus Fontinalis (Pat.) – Cos. 454Sp. TARPEIUS Montanus Capitolinus (Pat.) –Cos.454L. TREBONIUS AsperOther Notables Lucius Valerius Potitus (Cos. 449)Marcus Horatius Barbatus (Cos. 449)The Consuls 447 BCEM Geganius M. f. – n. Macerinus (Pat.) – Cos. 443, 437C. Iulius (-f. – n. Iullus?) (Pat.) – Cos. 435, 434?SourcesDr G reads Dionysius of Halicarnassus Roman Antiquities 11.51 and Diodorus SiculusDr Rad reads Livy ab Urbe Condita 3.65Broughton, T. R. S., Patterson, M. L. 1951. The Magistrates of the Roman Republic Volume 1: 509 B.C. – 100 B.C. (The American Philological Association)Cornell, T. J. 1995. The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000-264 BC) (Taylor & Francis)Degrassi, A. Inscriptiones Italiae 13.1.67 (Geganius triumphs over the Volscii c. 447 BCE)Degrassi, A. Inscriptiones Italiae 13.1.366f (Lars Herminius mentioned in a fragmented fasti) also corresponds to EDR156418Forsythe, G. 2006. A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War(University of California Press) Sound CreditsThanks to Orange Free Sounds, BBC Sounds, and Sound Bible for sound effects and the incomparable Bettina Joy de Guzman for our music.For our full show notes and edited transcripts, head on over to https://partialhistorians.com/Support the showPatreonKo-FiRead our booksRex: The Seven Kings of RomeYour Cheeky Guide to the Roman Empire Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

Rome is still in the depths in 449 BCE, but there's been an epic turn of events. Appius Claudius may be dead, but what happens next? We're here to find out! Importantly, some of our key players in the plebeian set find themselves upgraded to the status of tribune of the plebs.Episode 119 – The Triumphant Return of the ConsulshipThe end of Spurius Oppius It's not just Appius Claudius who finds himself in trouble after the end of the decemvirate. Spurius Oppius, another decemvir also finds himself in a spot of bother. Publius Numatorius – tribune of the plebs, maternal uncle of Verginia, leds the cause against Spurius Oppius.Livy has Oppius embroiled in a terrible affair involving a loyal solider of Rome while Dionysius of Halicarnassus has a much more speedy account of Spurius Oppius' ultimate fate.It may not be surprising to hear that the rest of the decemivirs realise they need to find their way out of Rome!The Consulship ReturnsThe moderate patricians Lucius Valerius Potitus and Marcus Horatius Barbatus have managed to pass a range of laws that help support stability in the City. To catch up on the action of this front, check out Episode 118. But now that the major crises have passed, Rome begins to look outwards. It turns out that Rome's neighbours have noted their preoccupation with internal politics. The time has come for Rome to take a stand.Valerius takes a force against the Volscians and the Aequians. Horatius also takes out a force against the Sabines. We delve into the details of the strategies deployed by the Roman commanders. Both consuls and their forces make an excellent showing on the battlefield and return home with high expectations of a triumph or two.What are the Tribunes up to?As the year 449 BCE unfolds some of tribunes behaviour starts to garner suspicions. Is it just the case that groups of ten men now look a little shady to Romans in general? Or is there a new grab for power happening? The tribune Marcus Duilius may have some of the answers… Things to listen out forA soldier scourged The quaestores parricidiiThe amazing returning bootySome very interesting fracas about triumphsTribunes acting suspiciously…A new buddy system for tribunesOur PlayersThe DecemvirsAppius Claudius. Ap. f. M. n. Crassus Inregillensis Sabinus Pat – Cos. 471, 451Spurius Oppius CornicenQuintus Fabius M. f. M. n. Vibulanus Pat – Cos. 467, 465, 459Quintus Poetelius Libo VisolusManius RabuleiusMarcus Cornelius – f. Ser. n. Maluginenesis PatLucius Minucius P. f. M. n. Esquilinus Augurinus Pat – Cos. 458Marcus? Sergius Esquilinus PatTitus Antonius MerendaCaeso Duillius Longus?The SenatorsLucius Valerius PotitusMarcus Horatius BarbatusThe Verginii and SupportersVerginia – a Roman maiden, murdered by her father in order to protect her from the lust of Appius ClaudiusVerginius – father of Verginia and newly elected tribune of the plebsPublius Numitorius – Verginia’s maternal uncle and newly elected tribune of the plebsLucius(?) Icilius – Verginia’s betrothedand newly elected tribune of the plebsTribunes of the Plebs, 449 BCELucius VerginiusLucius Icilius (who had served as a tribune previously)Publius NumitoriusGaius Sicinius – son of the man who was first tribune chosen on Sacred Mount (L?.Sicinius)Marcus Duillius (who had served as a tribune previously)Marcus TitiniusMarcus PomponiusGaius AproniusAppius VilliusGaius OppiusOther NotablesGaius Claudius – uncle of Appius ClaudiusSourcesDr G reads Dionysius of Halicarnassus Roman Antiquities 11.46-50Dr Rad reads Livy ab Urbe Condita 3.58-64Joseph Désiré Court 1864. The Martyrdom of Saint Agnes. Not historically aligned with the year we're examining but a very evocative imagining of Rome.For our full show notes and edited transcripts, head on over to https://partialhistorians.com/Support the showPatreonKo-FiRead our booksRex: The Seven Kings of RomeYour Cheeky Guide to the Roman Empire Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

We sat down recently to have a conversation with Professor Karen Carr who is Emerita at Portland State University. She holds a doctorate in Classical Art and Archaeology and we were thrilled to discuss the ideas for her latest work. We explore Carr's research on the connections between women, money, and the economy in the ancient world.Special Episode – Roman Women and Money with Professor Karen CarrCarr has an impressive breadth and depth to her research work. She's the author of Vandals to Visigoths: Rural Settlement Patterns in Early Medieval Spain. Carr also has a book coming out in 2022 called Shifting Currents: A World History of Swimming. However, in this conversation we were focusing on her radical new theories on women and their place in economies. The conversation ranges from the Stone Age through to the modern world! Professor Carr is currently writing a book on this topic that is slated for release in 2023 through the University of Liverpool Press.Thinking about ancient economiesProfessor Carr suggests that manufacturing, and thus the production of wealth, was initially tied to the work of women. They say that money makes the world go around, so it seems like women were making the world go around since the Stone Age! They helped to produce items like beads and textiles that could be used for trade long before humans invented coinage.This all started to change when Greeks and Romans started to export silver and gold in larger quantities, especially in the form of coinage. Mining for metals and minting the coins was largely men's work and this type of money started to be promoted as ‘masculine', while items like beads and textiles were labelled as ‘feminine'. As parts of the world, such as Asia and Africa, continued to engage in the manufacture of these goods for trade, foreigners also started to be associated with femininity. If you are starting to feel like the economy in the ancient world was complex, you would be correct!Penelope and the Suitors by J. W. Waterhouse. Work that wool, Penelope!Roman Women and MoneyTune in to hear how all of these developments may have contributed to slavery in the ancient and modern world. With the fashion industry being one of the largest contributors to carbon emissions and coming under more scrutiny for the poor conditions of workers, you won't want to miss Professor Carr's theories about how contemporary attitudes towards fast fashion may go back further than you think.Close-up of some of the coins from the Frome Hoard. This hoard contains 52 503 Roman coins which date from 253-305 CE!Music and Sound EffectsThe music featured in this episode is an original composition for our podcast by the glorious Bettina Joy de Guzman.For our full show notes and edited transcripts, head on over to https://partialhistorians.com/Support the showPatreonKo-FiRead our booksRex: The Seven Kings of RomeYour Cheeky Guide to the Roman Empire Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

Appius Claudius: what a man, what a couple of decemvirates! But while the title of this episode might have given some things away, it's all about how it happens.If our sources are to be believed, 449 BCE was one hell of a year. In our previous episode, we witnessed the end of the tyrannical Second Decemvirate and the Second Secession of the Plebeians. Two patricians, Valerius and Horatius, had managed to coax the plebeians back to Rome and their protest helped to oust the decemvirs from power. This episode, we will delve into the aftermath of these dramatic events, and we finally get to kill off that much-hated decemvir, Appius Claudius. Episode 118 – The Death of Appius ClaudiusIs Justice blind? We'll find out in the case of Appius Claudius!Image Source: Salvis JuribusReview the Career of Appius ClaudiusLooking to catch up to speed before heading into this episode? Appius Claudius' story starts at Episode 109 – The First Decemvirate. The Consulship of Valerius and HoratiusWith the office of the tribune of the plebs restored, it is time to secure some new consuls as well. Who better than the patricians who defied the decemvirs, Lucius Valerius Potitus and Marcus Horatius Barbatus? And isn't an interesting coincidence that these two men were chosen to mop up the mess when their ancestors, P. Valerius Volusi Publicola and M. Horatius Pulvillus, were consuls back when the Republic was first established in 509 BCE? The Romans are known for associating particular gens with certain characteristics and policies, but it also may be the case that Romans followed paths that would uphold their family legacy.The Valerio-Horatian LawsIn spite of their patrician backgrounds, the consulship of Valerius and Horatius was particularly beneficial for the Roman people. This is largely due to some new laws that were introduced, now known as the Valerio-Horatian Laws. According to our sources, the legislation:restored the sacrosanctity to the tribune of the plebs and instituted harsh penalties for anyone who violated this lawrestored the consular law about the right of citizens to appeal. They also ensured that all future magistracies that were created would include the right to appeal.the decisions of plebeians (plebiscites) would now be considered binding for all Roman people, and not just the plebeians. These laws are clearly a direct response to what had transpired under the Second Decemvirate and restored a lot of power to the people. We'll explore some of the ramifications of these laws, the scholarly controversy over the dating, and what some of the more conservative patricians thought about them. The Death of Verginia by Doyen (1756-8). Image Courtesy of Wikimedia Commons. The Death of Appius Claudius With these new laws in place, the people feel confident enough to seek vengeance. Appius Claudius, the most despised decemvir, is the first to be targeted. His attempted abduction of the free Roman maiden, Verginia, comes back to haunt him as her father is now a tribune of the plebs. In both Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Verginius pursues Appius Claudius and has him arrested, seemingly with the intention of bringing him to trial. But while he awaits justice in prison, Appius Claudius ends up dead. At this point the accounts of Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus diverge. You won't want to miss all the twists and turns that accompany his demise!Our Players The DecemvirsAppius Claudius. Ap. f. M. n. Crassus Inregillensis Sabinus Pat – Cos. 471, 451The SenatorsLucius Valerius PotitusMarcus Horatius BarbatusThe Verginii and SupportersVerginia – a Roman maiden, murdered by her father in order to protect her from the lust of Appius ClaudiusVerginius – father of Verginia and newly elected tribune of the plebs Publius Numitorius – Verginia’s maternal uncle and newly elected tribune of the plebs Lucius(?) Icilius – Verginia’s betrothedand newly elected tribune of the plebs Tribunes of the Plebs, 449 BCELucius VerginiusLucius Icilius (who had served as a tribune previously) Publius Numitorius Gaius Sicinius – son of the man who was first tribune chosen on Sacred Mount (L?.Sicinius)Marcus Duillius (who had served as a tribune previously) Marcus TitiniusMarcus PomponiusGaius AproniusAppius VilliusGaius OppiusOther NotablesGaius Claudius – uncle of Appius Claudius Sources Dr G reads Dionysius of Halicarnassus Roman Antiquities 11.45-46Dr Rad reads Livy ab Urbe Condita 3.55-58Cornell, T. J. 1995. The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000-264 BC) (Taylor & Francis)Forsythe, G. 2006. A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War(University of California Press) Sounds CreditsThanks to Orange Free Sounds, BBC Sounds, and Sound Bible for sound effects and the incomparable Bettina Joy de Guzman for our music. For our full show notes and edited transcripts, head on over to https://partialhistorians.com/Support the showPatreonKo-F

Disruption is at the heart of great changes in human society. How might we understand disruption? How can we recognise it? And just what historical precedents do we have for successful change? We sit down with Professor David Potter to examine just these kinds of questions!David Potter is Francis W. Kelsey Collegiate Professor of Greek and Roman History and Arthur F. Thurnau Professor at the University of Michigan and has written extensively on the ancient world. In his latest book Disruption: Why Things Change, Professor Potter considers the disruption in Rome that reverberates today: the rule of Constantine and the relationship of Rome with the Christian Church.Special Episode – Disruption with David PotterThe Disruption of ConstantineSetting the stage is the life and times of the Roman Emperor Constantine. He is famous for bringing Christianity into Roman imperialism in a way that would have been unthinkable to Romans of previous generations. Professor Potter takes us through some of the pivotal moments in Constantine's rule. These are revealing for how Constantine builds towards consensus with Christian bishops.What does this change look like to the Romans? How did the thinking about Christians change? What steps did Constantine take that separated him from the emperors that came before? All this and more comes up for discussion in this episode. Statue of Constantine at York. He became emperor in 306 CE in Roman Eboracum, now modern York. This statue is a modern piece by the sculptor Philip Jackson and was unveiled in 1998. Image courtesy of Wikimedia Commons. Disruption as a Model for ActionOne of the key threads in Potter's book is that there are recognisable patterns for successful moments of disruption. A consideration of Constantine and Christianity in Rome is really just the tip of the iceberg with this text. Potter's view extends beyond ancient Rome to consider the rise of Islam, the Protestant Reformation, the Enlightenment and French Revolution, as well as disruptive political theories such as those of Marx and Spencer. What we see by taking a long view of history is that there's room to consider disruption not just as a culmination of circumstances, but as a potentiality that can be tapped into. Things to Listen Out forThe writer Eusebius' enthusiasm for Constantine's adoption of ChristianityThe Donatist controversy in North Africa involving book burningConstantine's letter to the Praetorian PrefectJulian's Theodoric Neoplatonism!The emperor Heraclius and the kings of PersiaSignificant Works by Professor PotterThe Origin of Empire: Rome from the Republic to HadrianConstantine the EmperorThe Victor's Crown: A History of Ancient Sport from Homer to ByzantiumTheodora: Actress, Empress, SaintDisruption: Why Things ChangeDisruption: Why Things Change by David PotterFor our full show notes and edited transcripts, head on over to https://partialhistorians.com/Support the showPatreonKo-FiRead our booksRex: The Seven Kings of RomeYour Cheeky Guide to the Roman Empire Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

We have been trapped under the tyrannical rule of the Second Decemvirate for too long! But never fear, listeners. Their day has finally come. In this episode, we finally see the decemvirs overthrown and the office of tribune of the plebs restored. It is a time of non-stop drama!Episode 117 – The Death of the DecemvirateAll About the AventineWith Dionysius of Halicarnassus' account getting very patchy, and Diodorus Siculus considered unreliable, Livy provides the bulk of the detail for this episode. The movements of the plebeians are a little confusing, but two locations are mentioned, the Mons Sacer (or Sacred Mount) and the Aventine. Both of these locations were also mentioned in the accounts of the First Secession of the Plebs in 494 BCE, but the Sacred Mount is definitely most associated with this event. In 449 BCE, the Aventine seems to play more of a role. Cicero’s references to the Second Secession in his pro Cornelio and de re Publica indicate that the plebs seceded to the Mons Sacer before heading to the Aventine Hill, whereas Livy’s plebs move from the hill to the Sacred Mount when it becomes clear that the senate was not making any decisions in a hurry. Diodorus Siculus only mentions the Aventine. With such a spotlight on this location, Dr Rad started reading the excellent work of Lisa Marie Mignone (2016). She has investigated the Aventine as it has developed a reputation as being particularly plebeian – but why?The Significance of the Aventine Mignone explains that the link between the Aventine and the plebs was firmly established by Alfred Merlin’s L’Aventin dans l’antiquité (1906), and Mignone is not so sure that we should be labelling any region of the city this way. However, there are a few notable reasons for this association, outside of the secessions: the lex Icilia de Aventino publicando from 456 BCE (which seems to have led to the distribution of land on the Aventine to plebeian families) andit was the locale of the temple of Ceres, and Gaius Gracchus (a troublesome tribune of the plebs) fled to the Aventine in 121 BCE when his career took sour turn. Indeed, Gracchus was zeroing in on the temple of Diana Aventiniensis, which Dionysius claimed was the plebs place of retreat during the Second Secession. However, hundreds years separate these instances, and since the majority of Rome’s populace were plebeian, is that enough to claim the Aventine had a distinctly plebeian character? This will be something we shall continue to explore as we progress through the Republic.The UltimatumAs Livy provides the most extensive narrative for this part of the tale, we pursue his version of events. The Senate continues to dither, despite the threat posed by a group of armed men on the outer edge of the city. Tired of waiting, the rebel army decide to leave the Aventine for the Mons Sacer (or Sacred Mount), and are followed by many Roman citizens, united in their determination to show the patricians that they mean business. It's either the plebeians or the decemvirs, and the senators need to choose! The days of the decemvirate might be numbered! It Takes Two, Baby With the city of Rome practically deserted, Valerius and Horatius are finally able to persuade their fellow senators that the decemvirate needs to end. Rome needs her plebeians back! The dynamic duo set off to negotiate an end to the second secession and the plebs manage to secure the return of the tribune of the plebs. According to Dr G's account, they may even have secured an upgrade in status for the decisions made by the tribal assembly. From now on, the tribal assembly would be on equal footing with the centuriate assembly and the decisions of the plebeians would apply to everyone in the city. With the reassurance that there would be no punishments for the secession, the plebs agree to return to Rome… just in time to witness the official resignation of the decemvirate. Appius is not happy about it, but most of his fellow Roman have ceased to care about his feelings by now.Our PlayersThe DecemvirsAppius Claudius. Ap. f. M. n. Crassus Inregillensis Sabinus Pat – Cos. 471, 451Spurius Oppius CornicenQuintus Fabius M. f. M. n. Vibulanus Pat – Cos. 467, 465, 459Quintus Poetelius Libo VisolusManius RabuleiusMarcus Cornelius – f. Ser. n. Maluginenesis PatLucius Minucius P. f. M. n. Esquilinus Augurinus Pat – Cos. 458Marcus? Sergius Esquilinus PatTitus Antonius MerendaCaeso Duillius Longus?The SenatorsLucius Valerius PotitusMarcus Horatius BarbatusThe Verginii and SupportersVerginiaVerginius – father of VerginiaPublius Numitorius – Verginia’s maternal uncleLucius(?) Icilius – former tribune of the plebs and Verginia’s betrothedOther NotablesMarcus Duillius (a former plebeian tribune)SourcesDr G reads Dionysius of Halicarnassus Roman Antiquities 11.44 and Diodorus Siculus Bibliotheca Historica 12.25Dr Rad reads Livy ab Urbe Condita 3.52-54Broughton, T. R. S., Patterson, M. L. 1951. The Magistrates of the Roman Republic Volume 1: 509 B.C.

We sit down to talk to the fabulous Professor Ray Laurence from Macquarie University in this special episode about urban space in Pompeii and the place of children within the society. These topics are close to his heart as his work mostly focuses on:The Roman CityCommunications and Mobility – especially Roman roadsAge and Ageing in the Roman WorldSpecial Episode – Pompeii with Professor Ray LaurenceYou may also recognise his name because, in addition to his scholarly publications, Ray has worked with TEDEd to produce some amazing short videos on the life of children in Ancient Rome. Join us for this fascinating discussion on life in Pompeii!The Urban Environment and Street LifePompeii is a very famous site, but there are a lot of misconceptions about what this place was actually like before the eruption. Ray Laurence explains why life in Pompeii was tough and how the built environment reflects the fact that this was a very average town. It had been around for centuries before the eruption in 79 CE and shares the influences of various people who lived in the region, including the Etruscans, the Oscans, the Samnites, and finally, the Romans. The layout of Pompeii evolved over time and areas like the Forum were used in different ways throughout its existence. We can learn more about how people experienced the urban environment by piecing together a variety of evidence including wheel ruts, the width of streets, graffiti patterns, literature, and the building remains. While Pompeii may not have been especially fancy, it was a bustling town and people spent a lot of time in the streets, conducting business, conversing, stopping at shrines, fetching water, or grabbing some takeaway. The Forum, Pompeii.Children in PompeiiWe tend to see Pompeii from the perspective of adults as children leave less evidence – whether this is literary, archaeological or even human remains. Scholars such as Katherine Huntley and Ray Laurence urge us not to discount their experiences as they make up a sizeable proportion of the town. Once we start thinking about the urban layout from their perspective, it is surprising what we can discover. By using the average heights of adults in Pompeii, we can approximate the growth of children in the towns and thus consider how accessible the amenities were for the smallest residents. For instance, children over six years old would probably be able to access water fountains and the bars, therefore securing their own food and drink! As they grew older, they would have had more ease of access to sacred spaces such as household shrines. Katherine Huntley has carried out extensive global studies of children's drawing and applied what they have uncovered to the graffiti of Pompeii. In spite of the differences in time and culture, there are patterns in how children start drawing that can help us to determine which samples of figural graffiti in Pompeii were produced by children.The Temple of Isis, Pompeii.There are also famous examples of children, such as Numerius Popidius Celsinus, a six year old who paid for the restoration of the Temple of Isis after it was damaged in the earthquake in 62 CE. In recognition of his contribution, he was elected to the town council! This seems odd to modern eyes, but Ray explains that he was not the only child to become a part of the ordo of decuriones. What we wish we knew was how these children moved around the town as they made their way to meetings! Nonetheless, these examples demonstrate that once we look a little harder, there is a lot that can be learned about the presence of children in Pompeii. Sources and Further ReadingHuntley, K. V. (2018). ‘Children's Graffiti in Roman Pompeii and Herculaneum.' In The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology of Childhood, edited by Sally Crawford, Dawn M. Hadley & Gillian Shepherd, 376-386. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Laurence, R. (2010). Roman Pompeii: Space and Society. Second Edition, London: Routledge. Laurence, R. (2017). ‘Children and the urban environment: Agency in Pompeii.' In Children and everyday life in the Roman and late antique world, edited by Christian Laes and Ville Vuolanto, 27-42. London & New York: Routledge. Don't forget to check out Professor Laurence's TEDEd videos! You can also follow him on Twitter @raylaurence1 or on Academia.eduFour Sisters in Ancient RomeA Glimpse of Teenage Life in Ancient Rome A still from ‘A Glimpse of Teenage Life in Ancient Rome'For our full show notes and edited transcripts, head on over to https://partialhistorians.com/Support the showPatreonKo-FiRead our booksRex: The Seven Kings of RomeYour Cheeky Guide to the Roman Empire Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

CW: The accounts of Verginia include paedophilic desire and violence against women.The Second Secession is a contested moment in Roman's early republican history. The fallout from two key events lead us to this point according to our later written sources: one is the murder of Lucius Siccus Dentatus “the Roman Achilles” and the other is the murder of the young plebeian Verginia (also known as Virginia). We'll be exploring what the sources can tell us and what we might make of this challenging moment in Rome's history.Episode 116 – The Second SecessionThe Second DecemvirateIn what feels like a period of time packed with action, the second decemvirate continues to rule in Rome. Originally placed in power to oversee the the project of writing down laws, there has been a big shift from serving the state to serving their own self-interest. With all other magistracies suspended while the decemvirate remains in power, Rome feels increasingly adrift. The further things drift, the more likely a secession of the plebeians becomes…Looking to recap earlier material on the decemvirate? It all begins with Episode 109!Fathers in RomeWe follow Verginius, the father of Verginia, who flees Rome after murdering her in the forum and returns to the armed forces. How he copes with his grief and what he chooses to do next will determine much of what follows. This leads us to consider the nature of Roman patriarchal society. What do the Romans value when it comes to familial and state structures and how does this system affect men and women differently?Being a father is one role that many Roman men fulfilled, but it came with other duties like those to the state. We spend time in Roman camps, with men reflecting on their duty, what might be politically appropriate, and what kind of leadership they want from the ruling elite. All of this should give the patricians pause. It certainly has the decemvirate worried.Things to come as the Secession hots upTune in the hear the conflicting accounts of this period that come down to us including:The call to revolt against the decemvirs and restore the republic!The rumour that the decemvirate has already been overthrown and doesn't require anyone's revolution!The sacred quality of the army standardsRival groups of ten!Guillaume Guillon-Lethière c. 1800 The Death of Virginia. You can explore this artwork in detail of Google Arts & CultureOur PlayersThe DecemvirsAppius Claudius. Ap. f. M. n. Crassus Inregillensis Sabinus Pat – Cos. 471, 451Spurius Oppius CornicenQuintus Fabius M. f. M. n. Vibulanus Pat – Cos. 467, 465, 459Quintus Poetelius Libo VisolusManius RabuleiusMarcus Cornelius – f. Ser. n. Maluginenesis PatLucius Minucius P. f. M. n. Esquilinus Augurinus Pat – Cos. 458Marcus? Sergius Esquilinus PatTitus Antonius MerendaCaeso Duillius Longus?The SenatorsLucius Valerius PotitusMarcus Horatius BarbatusThe Verginii and SupportersVerginiaVerginius – father of VerginiaPublius Numitorius – Verginia’s maternal uncleLucius(?) Icilius – former tribune of the plebs and Verginia’s betrothedOther NotablesSpurius TarpeiusGaius JuliusPublius SulpiciusMarcus OppiusSextus Malius (or Manlius)SourcesDr G reads Dionysius of Halicarnassus Roman Antiquities 11.40-44 and Diodorus Siculus Bibliotheca Historica 12.22-25Dr Rad reads Livy ab Urbe Condita 3.49-51Broughton, T. R. S., Patterson, M. L. 1951. The Magistrates of the Roman Republic Volume 1: 509 B.C. – 100 B.C. (The American Philological Association)Cornell, T. J. 1995. The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000-264 BC) (Taylor & Francis)Cornell, T. J. 2005. ‘The Value of the Literary Tradition Concerning Archaic Rome' in Raaflaub, K. A. ed. 2005. Social Struggles in Archaic Rome: New Perspectives on the Conflict of the Orders, Expanded and Updated Edition (Blackwell), pp 47-74Forsythe, G. 2006. A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War (University of California Press)Koptev, A. V. 2018. ‘The Making of Plebeian Secessions in Roman Historiography’. History, 63:3, 823-44Raaflaub, K. 2005. ‘From Protection and Defense to Offense and Participation: Stages in the Conflict of the Orders’ in K. Raaflaub (ed) Social Struggles in Archaic Rome: New Perspectives on the Conflict of the Orders, Expanded and Updated Edition (Blackwell), pp 185-222Ungern-Sternberg, J. von. 2005. “The Formation of the ‘Annalistic Tradition': The Example of the Decemvirate” in Raaflaub, K. A. ed. 2005. Social Struggles in Archaic Rome: New Perspectives on the Conflict of the Orders, Expanded and Updated Edition (Blackwell), pp 75-97Music and Sound EffectsAdditional music and sound in this episode includes an original composition for our podcast by the wonderful Bettina Joy de Guzman. Sound Effects courtesy of BBC Sound Effects Beta, and 13NHarri.For our full show notes and edited transcripts, head on over to https://partialhistorians.com/Support the showPatreonKo-FiRead ou

CW: The accounts of Virginia include paedophilic desire and violence against women.Virginia has been murdered by her own father in the Forum in an attempt to protect her from the decemvir Appius Claudius. As far as Virginius and most other Roman dads are concerned, death is better than dishonour. What will this act mean for Virginius and his family? How will it impact Appius Claudius? Tune in to find out as we venture once more into the rule of the Second Decemvirate and deal with the aftermath of one of the crises of the Conflict of the Orders.Looking to get up to sped on Verginia's story so far – it begins here. Yes, you're right, there's a variety of ways to spell her name!Episode 115 – The Anatomy of a MurderCharlotte Mary Yong 1880. The Death of Verginia. Courtesy of Wikimedia CommonsChaos in the City Even though this is a key moment in the conflict between patricians and plebeians, there are still some intriguing differences in the accounts provided by Livy and Dionysius. In Dr Rad’s account, Verginius is quick to fight his way out of Rome in the midst of the chaos with a band of supporters, leaving Verginia’s fiancée Icilius and her uncle Numitorius to display the body of the murdered girl to the crowd. In a scene very reminiscent of Lucretia’s body being used to incite the overthrow of the monarchy, Verginia’s corpse is used as a symbol of the corruption of the Second Decemvirate and the crowd starts to get dangerous. It seems that they may also have some allies – the disgruntled patricians who also despise the decemvirs. The leaders of this faction include Valerius and Horatius, and they are getting a lot of love from the citizens for standing up to Appius Claudius and his cronies.Meanwhile, in Dionysius’ account, there is a lot more focus on the fate of Verginia’s body. When Appius tries to have her removed from the Forum, the people claim her body for their own and stage a funeral procession for the murdered girl. Livy and Dionysius clearly have included different details regarding the aftermath of her death, but in both accounts, she is clearly a symbol in life and death. These stories highlight how women are used by male writers to draw attention to the virtues and vices of the men around them. In this sense, these histories were not striving for an analytical and objective account, but one that promoted a desirable ideology for their own time. It is very clear that these were histories designed to inspire those who read them to act in ways that would benefit the state and keep order. A Real Cliffhanger In spite of their differences, both Livy and Dionysius end up leading us to the same point. We switch from events in Rome to Verginius’ return to his army encampment. Covered in the blood of his daughter and still clutching the murder weapon, he makes a rousing speech in both accounts, trying to persuade his fellow-soldiers that the real criminal in this sordid affair is Appius Claudius. Will the soldiers support him in seeking vengeance against the decemvir? Or will the tyrannous rule of the ten continue?Gabriel François Doyen c. 1757. La Mort de Virginie (The Death of Virginia)Our PlayersThe DecemvirsAppius Claudius. Ap. f. M. n. Crassus Inregillensis Sabinus Pat – Cos. 471, 451Spurius Oppius CornicenQuintus Fabius M. f. M. n. Vibulanus Pat – Cos. 467, 465, 459Quintus Poetelius Libo VisolusManius RabuleiusMarcus Cornelius – f. Ser. n. Maluginenesis PatLucius Minucius P. f. M. n. Esquilinus Augurinus Pat – Cos. 458Marcus? Sergius Esquilinus PatTitus Antonius MerendaCaeso Duillius Longus?The SenatorsLucius Valerius PotitusMarcus Horatius BarbatusThe Verginii and SupportersVerginiaVerginius – father of VerginiaPublius Numitorius – Verginia’s maternal uncleLucius(?) Icilius – former tribune of the plebs and Verginia’s betrothedOur SourcesDr Rad reads Livy, From the Founding of the City 3.48-50Dr G reads Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities 11.37-40Joshel, S. 2002. ‘The Body Female and the Body Politic: Livy’s Lucretia and Verginia.’ In Sexuality and gender in the classical world: readings and sources, edited by Sandra R. Joshel & Laura K. McClure, 163-190. Oxford: Blackwell.Keegan, P. 2021. Livy’s Women: Crisis, Resolution, and the Female in Rome's Foundation History. New York: Routledge.Sound CreditsAdditional music and sound in this episode includes an original composition for our podcast by the wonderful Bettina Joy de Guzman. Sound Effects courtesy of Audio Micro and Fesliyan Studios. Sandro Botticelli c. 1496-1504. The Story of Virginia. Courtesy of Wikimedia Commons.This painting presents the different phases of Virginia's story in different parts of the painting. From left to right: Virgina is violated by Marcus Claudius while in the company of other women; Marcus Claudius takes her to the tribunal presided by Appius Claudius who declares her to a slave; The family of Virginia plead for justice; Verginius murders Virginia and then flees Rome on horseback.For our ful

CW: The accounts of Verginia include paedophilic desire, violence against womenThe story of Verginia is an achingly tragic tale central to understanding the Second Decemvirate. Both Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus go into some detail about what happens and how it unfolds and we'll explore both accounts to compare and contrast them.Episode 114 – The Tale of VerginiaReading our Sources on VerginiaDr Rad takes us through the complexities of thinking about Livy's context and how that might influence his presentation of the material. Dr G explores the connection between the Latin term virgo (virgin) and her name Verginia. There's plenty of parallels that will emerge between Verginia's story and the story of Lucretia, whose fate seals the demise of the Roman monarchy.What Horror…Verginia is the daughter of a well-known centurion who is fighting on one of Rome's frontiers. But conflict emerges when Appius Claudius decides that he wants her for himself. He seems heedless to reason or morality when it comes to Verginia and this leads him to engage in a set of behaviours that are appalling.What to listen out forVerginia's story is one that involves a number of strange and dangerous concepts:Claiming people from the street as slavesConvoluted plans to remove a young woman from her familyLegal arguments around the claim that someone is a slaveArguments for how to protect women's virginityWhat does it mean to be a citizen?Official summons and strategies to foil summonsGroups of women akin to a tragic chorusA butcher stand and the connection of Venus with the Cloaca MaximaOur PlayersDecemvirsAppius Claudius. Ap. f. M. n. Crassus Inregillensis Sabinus Pat – Cos. 471, 451Spurius Oppius CornicenQuintus Fabius M. f. M. n. Vibulanus Pat – Cos. 467, 465, 459Quintus Poetelius Libo VisolusManius RabuleiusMarcus Cornelius – f. Ser. n. Maluginenesis PatLucius Minucius P. f. M. n. Esquilinus Augurinus Pat – Cos. 458Marcus? Sergius Esquilinus PatTitus Antonius MerendaCaeso Duillius Longus?Appius Claudius' clientMarcus ClaudiusThe Verginii and SupportersVerginiaVerginius – father of VerginiaNumitoria – mother of VerginiaPublius Numitorius – Verginia's maternal uncleLucius(?) Icilius – former tribune of the plebs and Verginia's betrothedOur SourcesDr Rad reads Livy 3.44-48Dr G reads Dionysius of Halicarnassus Rom. Ant. 11.28-37Joshel, S. 2002. ‘The Body Female and the Body Politic: Livy’s Lucretia and Verginia.’ In Sexuality and gender in the classical world: readings and sources, edited by Sandra R. Joshel & Laura K. McClure, 163-190. Oxford: Blackwell.Keegan, P. 2021. Livy’s Women. New York: Oxon.Sound CreditsAdditional music and sound in this episode includes an original composition for our podcast by the fabulous Bettina Joy de GuzmanHeinrich Friedrich Fuger – The Death of Virginia. Courtesy of Wikimedia Commons user Jbribeiro1For our full show notes and edited transcripts, head on over to https://partialhistorians.com/Support the showPatreonKo-FiRead our booksRex: The Seven Kings of RomeYour Cheeky Guide to the Roman Empire Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

In this very special episode we're joined by archaeologist Darius Arya. Darius has lived and worked as an archaeologist in Rome for over twenty years! Special Episode – The Archaeology of Early Rome with Darius AryaWe wanted to learn more about the archaeological record for the early period of Rome's history. While we've been focused on reading and interpreting the literary sources of Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus, there's a wealth of other evidence for the ancient past to consider. Archaeology is fundamental in revealing elements of the past that aren't written down. Even more interesting is that the archaeological remains can suggest new interpretations about the past that conflict or add complexity to the literary sources.You may have seen Darius on television. He's presented a number of documentaries on the ancient world and we are absolutely thrilled to explore Rome's early history with his expertise. Things to listen out for in this episode:The importance of topographyThe connections between the Etruscan peoples and the RomansDiscussion of how the Etruscans dominate the archaeological record compared Rome's other early neighbours, the Volscians and the AequiansWhat we can say about the Sabine peoplesKey sites of interest when thinking about early Rome and her neighboursWe recommend having a map handy to spot all the places that are touched on in this far-ranging and engaging conversation. The map below has some of places mentioned on it and also provides some guidance on the languages of the different regions. The Linguistic Landscape of Central Italy at the beginning of Roman expansion. Courtesy of Susana Freixeiro~commonswiki via Wikimedia CommonsDarius Arya can be found on social media, posting about Rome and the sites he's working on and the museums he's collaborating with. You can catch him on Twitter @DariusAryaDigs, Instagram @dariusaryadigs, and his limited series podcast Darius Arya Digs.He is the director of The American Institute for Roman Culture. Their mission “to preserve and protect Rome’s extraordinary and unique cultural legacy through education, outreach, and action.” He is also the director of Ancient Rome Live which is dedicated to providing free-to-access resources for learning about ancient Rome.Guide to Locations and PeoplesAequians – the Aequian peoples are an Italic group that inhabited the Apennine mountains east of Rome and to the south of the Sabines.Albano – in the Castelli Romani region to the south-east of Rome. There is a a lake and a hill named for AlbanoAnio, river – The Anio starts in the Apennines east of Rome and flows through Tivoli before joining the TiberAntium – south of Rome and slightly east, a coastal cityThe Castelli Romani region (please note this is to the south-east not south-west of Rome!) – includes the modern towns which are also ancient sites: Albano, Castel Gandolfo, Frascati, Tusculum. Often associated with the Aequians in the literary sources for the early Republic.Castel Gandolfo – in the Castelli Romani region to the south-east of Rome. Most famous now as the location of the Pope's summer residence!Circeo (ancient Circeii) – South and east of Rome. A coastal site that is further south and further east than Antium. Modern San Felice Circeo, the site is known for its beach. In ancient Rome, this was where a treaty was signed between Carthage and Rome in 509 BCE!Frascati – in the Castelli Romani region to the south-east of Rome.Ostia – west of Rome, a port settlement at the mouth of the Tiber river.Sabines – a peoples living to the east of Rome and north of the river Anio in the mountainous Apennine regionSant'Omobono – an archaeological site in Rome next to the church of Sant'Omobono, at the junction of the modern via L. Petroselli and il Vico Jugario at the foot of the Campidoglio (the ancient Capitoline hill). This site contains altars and temples to Fortuna and Mater Matuta and is considered very important for understanding the development of urbanisation in Rome. The Sant'Omobono archaeological site where temple remains date back to the 7th century BCE! Courtesy of Wikimedia CommonsTusculum– in the Castelli Romani region to the south-east of Rome. Famous in our written sources for the early Republic as a friend of Rome, but also later famous as where Cicero had a villa.Pomezia – directly south of Rome. The modern township on the ancient site of Lavinium and located in the Pontine marshes.Veii – about sixteen kilometres north of Rome. An Etruscan city built on a plateau of tuff and was considered to be in an extremely defensible and strategic location. Veii is the most significant southern city of Etruria.Volscians – the Volscian peoples are thought to be a group of Osco-Umbrian speakers who inhabited the area south of Rome, which is characterised by hills interspersed with marshes such as the Pontine marshes.For our full show notes and edited

We are deep in the Second Decemvirate (c. 449-447 BCE) and Rome faces war on two fronts. The complications of this new political arrangement and the increasing pressure of armed conflict places the decemvirate under stress as they need to decide how to lead Rome while facing patrician opposition from the Senate. All the while, Rome's enemies head closer…Episode 113 – Farewell to the Roman AchillesEnter a Plebeian Hero!Into this fiery atmosphere, Lucius Siccius Dentatus re-enters the narratives of Livy and Dionysius. He is both well-known and well-loved and we find him serving with the decemvirs at the Sabine front. And its not long before he begins to voice his dissatisfaction with the decemvirs' approach to power. According to Livy he proposes succession…Murder Most FoulOur sources agree that Dentatus is murdered by his own and this episode is all about sifting through the details provided by Livy and Dionysius. Despite scholarly misgivings that Dentatus may be a fictionalised creation, there's no denying that his presence in a historical narrative adds a certain exciting sheen to proceedings.Things to tune in for:Duelling accounts the murder of DentatusMurder investigations Roman styleThe intriguing qualities of the legateThe amazing last stand of a plebeian heroLooking to relive the highlights of Siccius Dentatus' life? Check out our back catalogue:Episode 105 – The Roman AchillesEpisode 106 – Spoiler AlertOur PlayersDecemvirsTwo legions in RomeAppius Claudius. Ap. f. M. n. Crassus Inregillensis Sabinus Pat – Cos. 471, 451Spurius Oppius CornicenThree legions against the SabinesQuintus Fabius M. f. M. n. Vibulanus Pat – Cos. 467, 465, 459Quintus Poetelius Libo VisolusManius RabuleiusFive legions against the AequiansMarcus Cornelius – f. Ser. n. Maluginenesis PatLucius Minucius P. f. M. n. Esquilinus Augurinus Pat – Cos. 458Marcus? Sergius Esquilinus PatTitus Antonius MerendaCaeso Duillius Longus?Hero of the PeopleLucius Siccius DentatusOur SourcesDr Rad reads Livy 3.42-43Dr G reads Dionysius of Halicarnassus Rom. Ant. 11.25-27Sound CreditsAdditional music and sound in this episode includes:an original composition for our podcast by the fabulous Bettina Joy de Guzmanand additional sound effects from BBC Sound Effects BetaAniello Falcone c. 1640. Roman soldiers in the circus. Courtesy of Wikimedia Commons. Not a Roman battle or ambush, but a sense of Roman soldiers in movement to add to the story at hand.For our full show notes and edited transcripts, head on over to https://partialhistorians.com/Support the showPatreonKo-FiRead our booksRex: The Seven Kings of RomeYour Cheeky Guide to the Roman Empire Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

One of the funniest pieces of theatre set in Ancient Rome has to be A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum (1962). Now there is a book about murder in Ancient Rome that matches the title inspiration for comedy as well. We sat down to talk to historian and author Dr Emma Southon about her new book A Fatal Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum. Dr Southon is also one of the hosts of the podcast History is Sexy and author of Agrippina: Empress, Exile, Hustler, Whore. We were excited to discover that not only does Emma share our affection for Julio-Claudian women, but she is a fellow murderino and lover of Drag Race at heart.Special Episode – Murder in Ancient Rome with Dr SouthonWhy is there so much DEATH in Ancient Rome? Listeners of our podcast have probably already noticed just how many murders take place in Rome's mythology and history. The foundation myth about the twins Romulus and Remus has fratricide at its very core. The overthrow of the kings and the beginning of the Republic was triggered by a rape and the suicide of Lucretia. These moments are probably mythological, but the fact that the Romans chose to tell such stories about themselves says a lot about their culture. Oath of the Horatii (1784) by Jacques-Louis David. The tale of the Horatii is probably mythological. The three brothers volunteered to fight three brothers from one of Rome's enemy cities, one of whom happened to be engaged to their sister. All the combatants perished, except one of the Horatii, who thus secured victory for his city. Upon his return to Rome, his sister wept as she knew her betrothed was dead. Her brother promptly ran her through, and his father defended the murder as justified. You can learn more about this episode in Rome's early history in our Episode 38 – Tullus Hostilius.Image courtesy of Wikimedia Commons.To add to this rather blood-soaked mythology, the history of Rome is punctuated with murders that take place at what are now seen as pivotal historical moments. The rather graphic murder of the Gracchi brothers during disputes over land reform, the assassination of Julius Caesar, and then we get to the empire and there are almost too many to list! The assassination of Gaius (Caligula), the murder of the emperor Claudius by his wife (and niece!) Agrippina the Younger, the brutal end of the emperor Vitellius in the civil wars of 69 CE, and the memorable stabbing of the emperor Domitian (straight to the groin!). These are just the highlights, so it is clear why someone like Dr Emma Southon needed to sit down and think about just what all of this murder can tell us about Roman society.What is the difference between murder and homicide?Homicide is the act of killing another person, but murder is a social construct. With murder, you need to take the circumstances of the killing into account. Was there intent? Was it planned? Each modern country has different ways of constructing the crime of murder, but one thing that unites most nations in our world is that they do have a law about murder. That was not actually the case in Ancient Rome. Even though they were very proud of their first law code, The Twelve Tables, there was no legislation included regarding the killing of another human being. And they weren't in a rush to amend that either! Dr Emma Southon takes us on a hair-curling journey through a variety of killings in the Roman world.What to expect in this episode?Murder by and of the eliteMurder in the imperial family Murdering emperorsMurder in the family Murder in a marriageMurder by magic Murder by the state Murder of and by slavesAn view of the Flavian Amphitheatre (or Colosseum). The Romans were big believers in capital punishment – who has the time or resources for rehabilitation? A criminal had done something to make Rome suffer, and so their death would also involve suffering. Executions were something that crowds of people would watch for amusement in theatres like this one, although they were often far less popular than beast hunts and gladiatorial shows… both of which also involved death and murder! Image by Davi Pimentel from PexelsWhat becomes disturbingly clear is just how much murder there must have been in the Roman world, some real and some imagined. Given how little material has survived from the ancient world, to have a picture like this emerge is quite shocking. Even more sickening is how clearly Roman society valued certain lives far above others. The study of murder highlights how little your death mattered without the ‘right' connections and status. The fact that modern societies are still wrestling with these issues is perhaps the most sobering take-away. We highly recommend picking up a copy of Emma's book to get the full scoop on all of these topics. And if all of this doesn't give you your true crime fix for the day, then you should probably consider seeking professional help!If you have the chance, we recommend supporting independent booksellers:

We pick up the action straight from the dramatic senate meeting from the previous episode in which was marked by conflict: Lucius Valerius Potitus and Marcus Horatius Barbatus opposed the decemvirs and faced violent intimidation and lead decemvir Appius Claudius faced off against his uncle Gaius Claudius. Episode 112 – The Disastrous DecemvirsThe Conflict ContinuesOnce again, we see clear division between the members of the senate. Speaking in favour of the decemvirs is Lucius Cornelius Maluginensis, who just happens to be the brother of one of the decemvirs. He emphasises the need to deal with the external threat from the Sabines and the Aequians, rather than stirring up opposition to their leaders. Cornelius' views win some support, but Lucius Valerius Potitus is determined to speak as well. Valerius feels the need to highlight how dire the political situation is in Rome. Will these decemvirs ever give up their power? What is to be done?Taking on the EnemyAs there is no right of appeal against the decemvirs, the levy is held to raise an army. The decemvirs divide the commands between them, with some sent against the Sabines, some are off to deal with the Aequians, and Appius Claudius and Spurius Oppius intend to hold the fort in Rome itself. If they were thinking that this was their time to shine, they are sadly mistaken as they face defeat across the board. Support for this regime, such as it was, is evaporating quickly and the decemvirs start taking ever more drastic measures to maintain their grip on power. Things to ComePatrician versus patrician conflict People fleeing the cityMilitary defeats on every front Murder and mayhem The popularity of the decemvirs sinks lower still Our PlayersThe Second DecemvirateAppius Claudius. Ap. f. M. n. Crassus Inregillensis Sabinus Pat – Cos. 471, 451Marcus Cornelius – f. Ser. n. Maluginenesis PatMarcus? Sergius Esquilinus PatLucius Minucius P. f. M. n. Esquilinus Augurinus Pat – Cos. 458Quintus Fabius M. f. M. n. Vibulanus Pat – Cos. 467, 465, 459Quintus Poetelius Libo VisolusTitus Antonius MerendaCaeso Duillius Longus?Spurius. Oppius CornicenManius RabuleiusThe SenatorsLucius Cornelius Maluginensis (brother of decemvir Marcus Cornelius)Lucius Valerius PotitusMarcus Horatius BarbatusGaius Claudius (uncle of Appius Claudius) Our SourcesDr Rad reads Livy Ab Urbe Condita 3.39-40Dr G reads Dionysius of Halicarnassus Roman History 11.16-24Sound CreditsAdditional music and sound in this episode includes:an original composition for our podcast by the incredible Bettina Joy de Guzmanand additional sound effects from BBC Sound Effects Beta, Orange Free Sounds, Sound Bible and Fesilyan StudiosA picture of the Roman forum as it can be seen today including the Curia Julia (senate house). The Curia Julia was not where our decemvirs would have met as this curia was built in 44 BCE by Julius Caesar. Caesar's curia replaced the Curia Cornelia which was itself a replacement for the Curia Hostilia. This image is courtesy of Rachel Claire via Pexels.For our full show notes and edited transcripts, head on over to https://partialhistorians.com/Support the showPatreonKo-FiRead our booksRex: The Seven Kings of RomeYour Cheeky Guide to the Roman Empire Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

There are many groups that are often overlooked in both ancient and modern societies. One of those are people with disabilities, and we were fortunate to talk to expert Dr Debby Sneed about her work on impairment in antiquity. Dr Sneed has examined a range of sources about this topic, including human remains, temples and textual evidence. Her focus has mostly been on physical impairments that leave a trace in human remains. Sneed's focus is ancient Greece, but we couldn’t resist bringing Rome into the conversation every now and then!  In order to make this episode as accessible as possible, a full transcript will be provided for this episode.Special Episode – Disability in Ancient Greece with Dr Debby SneedWhat's up for discussion?In this conversation we delve into a number of questions, including:How do you classify a disability in this line of research?How many people in the ancient world would have had a disability?What kinds of sources are available for studying disability in the ancient world?What would life have been like for people with disabilities in the ancient world?Topics that come up in the conversation:Artistic representations of disability in Greece and RomeThe Panhellenic Sanctuary of Asklepios at Epidauros with its eleven ramps!The practice of infanticide in ancient GreeceDisability and impairment among the elite including King Agesilaus II of Sparta, Philip II of Macedon, father of Alexander the Great, and the Roman Emperor Claudius Welfare systems in ancient Athens, as highlighted by Lysias 24, For The Disabled Man.  If you enjoyed this episode, be sure to check out some of the suggested readings. This is a huge topic, and we did not get the chance to discuss issues that leave less of a physical trace, such as blindness or muteness, nor did we touch on disabilities that might have arisen from disease or mental illness.You can also follow Dr Sneed on Twitter @debscavator and track her research at Academic.edu.This vase by the ‘Clinic Painter' is one of Dr Debby Sneed's favourites. It may show two men in a courtship pose, but this is still debated by scholars. One of the men is a dwarf or little person.Photograph by Maria Daniels, courtesy of the Musée du Louvre, January 1992.Transcript [00:00:00] Dr Rad Hello, there! You are in for a treat and you're going to be hearing a special episode from The Partial Historians. Today we're going to be talking to Dr. Debby Sneed. Dr. Debby Sneed is a lecturer in Classics at California State University. She has a PhD in Archaeology from UCLA. And a MA in Classics from the University of Colorado, at Boulder, as well as a BA in English and History from the University of Wyoming. She has worked on archaeological projects in Greece, Italy, Ethiopia, and the American Southwest.[00:00:46] And she's currently working on a monograph about disability accommodations in ancient Greece. She's got some publications that are also forthcoming. So keep your eyes peeled for that. But in the meantime, here is our episode with Dr. Debby Sneed.[00:01:09]Welcome to a special edition of The Partial Historians. I am one of your hosts, Dr. Rad. Dr GAnd I'm Dr. G. And we are super excited today to be sitting down with Dr. Debby Sneed. And we're going to be looking at disability in ancient Greece, and potentially also, as a side note, a little bit of ancient Rome coming from us.[00:01:31] Dr RadAbsolutely. You know, we can't resist that and I must admit, this is a topic that, I'm going to admit full disclosure. I apologize to both of you. I have never really thought that much about disability in the ancient world, which is actually doubly shameful because, on a personal note, I'm just going to throw it out there. I actually have a condition which means that I'm gradually losing my hearing. And I've actually lost quite a lot. I wear hearing aids now. And so, I suppose, I have a very mild disability, which, I'm really lucky, it doesn't affect my life too much at this point in time. But it's something that I suppose has been coming more and more into my life as I lose more hearing.[00:02:08] So I'm really fascinated to get talking about disability in the ancient world and what that entails. Dr GYeah, so it's fantastic to have you here, Debby, thank you so much for joining us.Dr Debby SneedYeah, thank you for having me. I'm glad to be here to talk about this. Dr RadSo like dive straight in with, uh, with one of our first questions, which is exactly how do you define or classify a disability in your research?Dr Debby Sneed[00:02:30] This is a really difficult question for a lot of reasons. And one of them has to do with a lot of the attitudes that people bring to the topic of disability in the modern period. Um, but for me, in my research, I focus specifically on physical disabilities. My work is primarily interdisciplinary, which means I look at material and evidence from a lot of different fields and reconcile them in various ways

It's our second episode in The Partial Recap series. This is a short, sharp, scripted overview of all the big events that defined the 450s BCE. If you're inspired to delve into more details, all the episodes from this decade can be found in our Foundation of Rome series.Let's jump into the refresher! It's the Partial Recap of the 450s BCE!The Partial Recap – the 450s BCEA view to the East over the Roman Forum with the Temple of Saturn on the left and the Palatine Hill on the right, showing the Temple of Castor and Pollux, the Arch of Titus, Santa Francesca Romana, and the Colosseum. Detail from the photograph by Nicholas Hartmann, June 1976. Image Source: Wikimedia Commons. Used under license.TranscriptIntroductionFR – Welcome to the Partial Recap for the 450s BC!PG – I’m Dr G FR – and I’m Dr RadPG – and this is our highlights edition of the 450s in Rome. We’ll take you through from 459 to 450 in an epitome of our normal episodes.FR – Perfect for those mornings when you don’t want some lengthy rhetoric with your coffeePG – Get ready for a recappuccino. 459 BCEIn 459 BCE, the consuls were Lucius Cornelius Maluginensus Uritnus and Quinctus Fabius Vibulanus, an old-hand in his third consulship. Rome is picking up the pieces after the recent invasion. A census is carried out. Rome has 117 319 citizens. Lustral sacrifices are needed to cleanse the city.Livy and Dionysius don’t really agree on the exact course of events. Perhaps Rome is trying to restore its rep after the military humiliation of the previous year?What seems clear from both accounts is that the Volscians and Aequians are up to something and the Romans set off to deal with it.They are particularly keen to help out the Tusculans who are under attack from the Aequains – or is this just a method for the Romans to restore their reputation after the invasion. Under Fabius, the Romans defeat the Aequians decisively. The consuls meet up and target the lands of both the Volscians and the Aequians. Antium, in Volscian territory, is a particular hotspot. It seems like there is a revolt going on in this territory, only recently captured by the Romans. After a messy battle, Antium is retaken and some locals and colonists are publicly scourged and beheaded. Now there’s an example no one will want to follow. Back at home, there is agitation for the law about the laws, but the Prefect of the City, Lucius Lucretius Tricipitinus, says that nothing can take place when consuls are away.The quaestors, Aulus Cornelius & Quintus Servilius, try to pursue Volscius for the charge of committing perjury about Caeso Quinctius being responsible for his brother’s murder – and it seems like they have a genuine case. The tribunes hold them off – after all, the consuls are away, right?Once the consuls return, it’s triumph time! Almost as though the invasion of 460 never happened…458 BCEIn 458 BCE, the consuls were Lucius Minucius Esquilinus Augurinus and Caius Nautius was consul for the second time.Rome is facing war on many fronts, so both of the consuls are need out in the field. Ex-consul, Quinctius Fabius Vibulanus, is made Prefect of the City – probably to keep an eye on the tribunes as well as the enemies of Rome.The exact order of events is different in Livy and Dionysius, but external wars constitute the main events of the year. The Aequians are back in action in spite of making peace the year before. The Aequians feel that they are not violating the deal as they are attacking the Latins – Rome’s allies, not Rome itself.The Romans send an embassy to talk to the Aequian’s leader, Cloelius Gracchus, Quinctius Fabius Vibulanus, Publius Volumnius Amintinus Gallus and Aulus Postumius Albus Regillensis Cloelius tells the distinguished ROmans to talk to the tree, because he ain’t listeningAnd it’s on like Donkey KongMinucius does not take a bold approach against the Aequian forces, which gives them confidence. Nautius has to be sent for as back-up. The tribunes pull their classic move of trying to prevent the levy of forces, and they almost won, but the Sabines then attack ROman territory, terrifying everyone.Nautius enjoys success against the Sabines, before being summoned by Minucius. However, they are going to need more help. What they need is a silver fox with enough virtus to choke an elephant. They need a dictator and they need Cincinnatus, father of the exiled Caeso. At least, the patricians do – they plebs aren’t thrilled at first. Cincinnatus whips the citizens into action and devises a strategy that wins the day against the Aequians. Cincinnatus demands the city of Corbio and Gracchus is brought to him in chains – YOU talk to the tree, smart-ass! Cincinnatus is now free to rescue the Tusculans.Minunius steps down from the consulship but remains in Cincinnatus’ service – he’s just so amazing! The army is

The Second Decemvirate is hotting up and it's not surprising to learn that Appius Claudius is somehow at the centre of things. We trace Rome through a precarious time, one that our sources have trouble dating – is it one year, two, three? It's c. 437 BCE; the magistracies are in disarray and the decemvirs hold sway. The situation takes a turn as Rome's neighbours sense an opportunity to invade… Episode 111 – Decemvirs in the SenateThe Meeting of the SenateIt is perhaps a measure of how the Second Decemvirate is going that we're not sure how much time has passed before the decemvirs seek a meeting with the senate. There's a haziness around dates that indicates we could be looking at up to three years of decemvirate rule!Appius Claudius speaks first in the Senate ostensibly to discuss how Rome will navigate the threats to her territory. But the Senate, having finally been called together under the rule of the decemvirs, have a lot of things they'd like to talk about! And boy do they have criticism to level. One very important point is that the decemvirs are operating outside the terms of their special magistracy and they are by consequence corrupting the nature of the republic.Looking to catch up on the action so far? Episode 109 – The First Decemvirate and Episode 110 – The Mask Comes Off are just what you need!The Power of FamilyThe real thorn in Appius' side while in the senate meeting is the presence of his uncle, Gaius Claudius. The patriarchal structures dictate that Appius show respect for Gaius' opinion and this opens the way for some power speechifying.Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus differ in their accounts of how this moment unfolds, but the significance of a familial connection in the senate is retained by both writers. We'll explore the similarities and differences of these sources.There's some explosive details with Gaius Claudius touching on everything from what makes an honourable patrician, to his personal take on Appius' character flaws, to a savage endictment as to what can happen when you ignore relatives.The Distraction FactorLivy shifts from speeches to explore the politicking in the senate including a possible interregum and calls for the decemvirs to give up office by the Ides of May. Meanwhile Dionysius of Halicarnassus continues to explore the rhetorical potential of a large-scale senatorial debate!Things to ComeA patrician call for a tribune to represent them and protect them from the decemvirate!The accusation that the decemvirs are the ‘Ten Tarquins' – ouch!Intimidation in the senate!Appius Claudius faces some heated criticism from his uncle Gaius…Concerns about how Rome will raise an armyHas Rome been abandoned by her citizens?Gaius Claudius offers Appius a way to salvage his reputation with the peopleThe possibility of an interrexA Sabine defection!Our PlayersThe Decemvirs (named in this episode)Appius ClaudiusQuintus Fabius Vibulanus (cos. 467, 465, 459 BCE)Marcus Cornelius – f. Ser. n. MaluginensisThe SenatorsLucius Valerius PotitusMarcus Horatius BarbatusLucius Cornelius – f. Ser. n. Maluginensis (brother of the decemvir Marcus)Lucius Quintius CincinnatusTitus Quinctius CapitolinusLucius LucretiusAppius Claudius' FamilyGaius Claudius (Appius' uncle)Our SourcesDr Rad reads Livy Ab Urbe Condita 3.39-40Dr G reads Dionysius of Halicarnassus Roman History 11.4-15Sound CreditsAdditional music and sound in this episode includes: a piece called ‘Ancient Tragedies' by 13NHarri an original composition for our podcast by the incredible Bettina Joy de Guzmanand additional sound effects from BBC Sound Effects BetaThe Roman Senate in action. Image via wallpaperaccess.comFor our full show notes and edited transcripts, head on over to https://partialhistorians.com/Support the showPatreonKo-FiRead our booksRex: The Seven Kings of RomeYour Cheeky Guide to the Roman Empire Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

Cleopatra looms large in the imagination, but her legacy is often overshadowed by the western cultural tradition. It turns out that there are many ways to understand the last Pharaoh of Egypt.Special Episode – The Reception of Cleopatra with Yentl LoveWe were thrilled to sit down with Yentl Love to discuss the Islamic reception of Cleopatra. Love is known for her work in making ancient history and classics accessible through her blog the The Queer Classicist. Love has been studying Ancient History and Classics for a number of years and is now bringing the ancient world to life for readers across the globe.Egypt's last pharaoh has a rather negative reputation in the western tradition. A classic example is the characterisation of her as a poisoner. Alexander Cabanel, Cleopatra Testing Poisons on Condemned Prisoners, between circa 1845 and circa 1887. Wikimedia CommonsRethinking Cleopatra  Cleopatra VII was the last Pharaoh to rule Egypt. She was part of the Ptolemaic dynasty, descendants of one of Alexander the Great’s generals. She experienced her fair share of family drama. One of her sisters was executed for seizing the throne from their father! It may not have been a relaxing childhood, but it did prepare her for a political career when she became pharaoh at just eighteen, alongside her younger brother, Ptolemy XIII.In this episode, we discuss Cleopatra’s journey and her encounters with some of the most famous Romans in history, including Julius Caesar, Mark Antony and Octavian (later Augustus!), and how these relationships would impact the way she was represented in the surviving sources. There are many Greco-Roman sources that refer to Cleopatra, and these include histories, biographies, poems and letters. One factor that they have in common is the negative portrayal of the Egyptian Pharaoh. This is in contrast to the archaeological record, such as coins, statues and buildings.One of the most arresting portraits is by Artemisia Gentileschi, Death of Cleopatra, 1613 or 1621-1622. Here we see a woman in middle age, stripped bare of all the insignia of power in her final moment of defiance. Cleopatra the Scholar We explore some of the reasons behind the differing portraits that have survived of Cleopatra, before delving into the Islamic source tradition. Produced much later than the Greco-Roman sources or the archaeological material, the Islamic sources provide a distinct portrayal of Egypt's last queen; one that is not bound up in her relationships with men or her appearance.Cleopatra the scholar? Elizabeth Taylor in the title role of the 1963 film with writing implement in hand!Image courtesy of www.mediafactory.com.auJoin us for this episode about the historiography of Egypt's last pharaoh; a woman whose fame deserves to include more than just her Roman lovers.Select BibliographyAshton, S. Cleopatra and Egypt. Malden: Blackwell Publishing, 2008.El-Daly, O. Egyptology: The Missing Millenium: Ancient Egypt in Medieval Arabic Writings. London & New York: Routledge, 2016.Gillett, M. “Goddess, Whore, Queen and Scholar.” Teaching History 51, no. 1 (March 2017): 19-23.Hughes-Hallet, L. Cleopatra: histories, dreams and distortions. London: Pimlico, 1997.Welch, K. “Cleopatra as Pharaoh?” Teaching History 53, no. 1 (March 2019): 10-15.For our full show notes and edited transcripts, head on over to https://partialhistorians.com/Support the showPatreonKo-FiRead our booksRex: The Seven Kings of RomeYour Cheeky Guide to the Roman Empire Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

The First Decemvirate was a big success, so much so that Rome opts for a Second Decemvirate!The decemvirs were popular figures in Rome and during 451 BCE they produced the Ten Tables. This initial set of law codes was positively received by the population, but there was something missing… MORE LAWS!But it isn't too long before some red flags appear… Episode 110 – The Mask Comes OffWait a Second… DecemvirateAppius Claudius campaigns hard to get himself re-elected, along with some of his patrician buddies. There are also some new and unusual names that appear in the list for the Second Decemvirate – we might have some plebeian magistrates on the team. Gasp! As soon as they are confirmed in their positions, the charismatic, approachable and charming Appius reveals his true self and his real intentions. Tyranny! Life in Rome quickly becomes extremely unpleasant for everyone as the decemvirs and their thugs flex their muscles, but it's especially tough if you are one of the less privileged persons in the populace. This a dark time for Rome. Join us to find out how they deal with the infamous Second Decemvirate! The Cancelleria relief, frieze B. This piece is a relief from the rule of Domitian so far ahead of where we are in the narrative, but it does include a lictor carries the fasces with the axe. The first complete figure from the right is a lictor holding the fasces in his left hand.Our PlayersThe Second Decemvirate Appius Claudius. Ap. f. M. n. Crassus Inregillensis Sabinus Pat – Cos. 471, 451Marcus Cornelius – f. Ser. n. Maluginenesis PatMarcus? Sergius Esquilinus PatLucius Minucius P. f. M. n. Esquilinus Augurinus Pat – Cos. 458Quintus Fabius M. f. M. n. Vibulanus Pat – Cos. 467, 465, 459Quintus Poetelius Libo VisolusTitus Antonius MerendaCaeso Duillius Longus?Spurius. Oppius CornicenManius RabuleiusOur Sources Cornell, T. J. 1995. The Beginnings of RomeEder, W. 2005. ‘The Political Significance of the Codification of Law in Archaic Societies: An Unconventional Hypothesis’ in K. Raaflaub (ed) Social Struggles in Archaic Rome: New Perspectives on the Conflict of the OrdersForsythe, G. 2005. A Critical History of Early RomeMomigliano, A. 2005. ‘The Rise of the Plebs in the Archaic Age of Rome’ in K. Raaflaub (ed) Social Struggles in Archaic Rome: New Perspectives on the Conflict of the OrdersPerello, C. F. A. 2020. ‘The Twelve Tables and the leges regiae; A Problem of Validity’ in S. W. Bell & P. J. du Pleissis (eds) Roman Law Before the Twelve Tables: An Interdisciplinary ApproachRaaflaub, K. 2005. ‘From Protection and Defense to Offense and Participation: Stages in the Conflict of the Orders’ in K. Raaflaub (ed) Social Struggles in Archaic Rome: New Perspectives on the Conflict of the OrdersScullard, H. H. 1935. A History of the Roman World 753-146 BCSound CreditsSound Effects: Fesliyan Studios, Sound Bible, BBC.Original Music: the fantastic Bettina Joy de GuzmanFor our full show notes and edited transcripts, head on over to https://partialhistorians.com/Support the showPatreonKo-FiRead our booksRex: The Seven Kings of RomeYour Cheeky Guide to the Roman Empire Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

The Twelve Tables are a landmark moment of early Republican Roman history. The lex duodecim tabularum see the codification of Rome's laws!The name ‘The Twelve Tables' is derived from the idea that these laws were inscribed on to twelve oak tablets. We happen to know quite a lot about the content of the tables, even though they have not survived in epigraphic form. The evidence for the tables comes from extant literature.Special Episode – The Twelve TablesThe main literary sources that we're reading at the moment, Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus, place the landmark moment of the codification around 450 BCE. The process is not a smooth one from their perspective! Normal magistracies are suspended in favour of a specially selected cohort of ten men who are granted authority to put together the law code.Believe us when we tell you that the drama associated with the decemvirate has only just begun to be revealed in Episode 109.The End of Long Struggle?According to our literary sources, both of whom are writing hundreds of years after the events they describe, the Twelve Tables are the result of the Struggle of the Orders. This ongoing rift between sections of the Roman population is contentious in its own ways, so it is worth considering the content of the Tables as a point of comparison. The difference between what we might expect of a law code that is the result of a class struggle and the laws themselves is quite something.So that's just what we're going to do in this special mini-episode! Join as we dip into the details of the law code and some of the fascinating details we learn from this document 😊Roman civilians examining the Twelve Tables after they were first implemented. Image courtesy of Wikimedia Commons.Looking to explore the Twelve Tables in more detail? You can read them all here! Other readings to consider:Forsythe, G. 2006. A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War. University of California Press – contains a chapter on the Twelve Tables and how the politics unfoldsBell, S., du Plessis, P. (eds.) 2020. Roman Law Before the Twelve Tables: An Interdisciplinary Approach. Edinburgh University Press – this one is hot off the press and we're super excited to jump in and read it soon!This shows the forum in ruins, but it is in this space that the Twelve Tables would have been present to the populace. Image curtesy of Wikimedia Commons, by Kimberlym21For our full show notes and edited transcripts, head on over to https://partialhistorians.com/Support the showPatreonKo-FiRead our booksRex: The Seven Kings of RomeYour Cheeky Guide to the Roman Empire Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

The history of Rome is complex, even in the early Republic. Sometimes it's hard to keep all the details straight so we thought it might be a good time to try something new. The Partial Recap series will be a scripted overview of each decade of Roman history. First cab off the rank is the decade of the 460s BCE. This is the last complete decade we've covered in our Foundation of Rome series, and we'll be working through the previous decades over the next few months.Part of the benefit of these episodes will be to help refresh the memory of the key events of each year. We're also trying out a scripted style that easy allows us to share a transcript, which is a good step forward in terms of accessibility for our podcast. As technology progresses, we're hoping to automate accurate transcripts for our conversational episodes.Join us for a Partial Recap of the 460s BCE!The Partial Recap – The 460s BCE“A view to the East over the Roman Forum with the Temple of Saturn on the left and the Palatine Hill on the right, showing the Temple of Castor and Pollux, the Arch of Titus, Santa Francesca Romana, and the Colosseum.” Detail from the photograph by Nicholas Hartmann, June 1976. Image Source: Wikimedia Commons. Used under license.TranscriptInroductionFR – Welcome to the Partial Recap for the 460s BC!PG – I’m Dr G FR – and I’m Dr RadPG – and this is our highlights edition of the 460s in Rome. We’ll take you through from 469 to 460 in an epitome of our normal episodes.FR – Perfect for those mornings when you don’t want some lengthy rhetoric with your coffeePG – Get ready for a recappuccino. 469 BCEIn 469, the consuls were Titus Numicus Priscus and Aulus Verginius Caelimontanus.There were some domestic issues that surfaced as the plebeians were pushing for progress with the agrarian law – looking for a fairer share of the land.They were quickly distracted by issues with the Volscians. The Volscians start making incursions into Roman territory and the consuls journey forward to meet the threat.Numicius heads off to the belly of the beast – Volscian territory – and his forces pillage and capture coastal settlements as they go. Antium, a major Volscian city, is in their sights.Verginius goes to deal with Aequians in the east. The Aequians are enemies of Rome and allies of the Volscians. After a bit of a rocky start, he defeats them in combat. He then turns around to deal with the Sabines. Turns out Rome is surrounded by enemies! Meanwhile, back in Rome, the plebeians decide not to vote in the annual elections. They are tired of the lack of progress on the agrarian law, so what is even the point anymore? The agrarian reform the plebeians have been pushing for would mean a fairer distribution of public land for all Roman citizens. The elite patricians have been stalling, knowing it’ll mean a loss for them.468 BCEIn 468 BCE, the consuls were Titus Quintius Capitolinus Barbatus (consul for the second time) and Quintus Servilius Priscus.Unrest between Rome and their neighbours continues. Rome is facing issues with the Sabines to the north east, and the Volscian-Aequian alliance which stretches from the south to the east.  Servilius is off campaigning against the Sabines. They stay well protected behind their walls as the Romans destroy their lands.Quintius takes on the Volscian-Aequian alliance and meets them on the battlefield. It’s tough, but with some quick thinking (and lying) on his part, as well as charging into battle on foot himself, the Romans pull through on the first day. The fighting continues the next day and the Romans are massively outnumbered. But one again, the generalship of Quintius saves the day. The Romans seize the enemy camp and the city of Antium!These amazing deeds secure a triumph for Quintius.Want to hear more about the politics and dramas of 469 and 468? Check out our Episode 88: Battle after Battle467 BCEIn 467 BCE, the consuls were Titus Aemilius Mamercus (cos. From 470 BCE) and Quintus Fabius Vibulanus.Fun fact: the consul Quintus Fabius is the sole survivor of his family from the infamous battle of Cremera in c. 477 BCE. Long live the Fabii!Aemilius Mamercus is drawing some heat from his fellow patricians because he seems open minded when it comes to the issue of agrarian reform and land allotment. The plebeian mood is one of optimism. However, the patricians as a whole are still resistant. Fabius has a cunning plan to settle the dispute. He suggests they use the new land they have captured near Antium to appease the plebeians. This suggestion is well-received as three past consuls are ushered in as triumvirs for assigning land to the people (triumviri agro dando). The lucky gentlemen are: Titus Quintius Capitolinus (cos. 471), Aulus Verginius (cos. 469) and Publius Furius (cos. 472).The plebeians aren’t in a hurry to leave Rome and don’t appreciate being banished from Rome, so the Senate allows Rom

The Roman republic is in full swing and it's time for the first decemvirate! The growing discontent amongst the population is reaching breaking point according to our narrative sources. Episode 109 – The First DecemvirateThis conflict is often referred to as the Struggle of the Orders. It's predicated on the idea that there is an ongoing tension between the patricians and the plebeians, two groups of Roman citizens at odds with each other. The patricians are the ‘haves' and the plebeians are the ‘have nots', but there are plenty of reasons to be wary of this division, since we're not quite sure what qualities firmly exclude someone from patrician status in this early period. While modern scholars tend to see this division of the Roman population as a retrojection of our narrative and annalistic sources, this is nevertheless the lens through which Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus are navigating the early history of the republic. And where they lead, we shall follow.In terms of chronology, it's 452 BCE, which means Rome is now over 300 years old! From here we begin to delve into the details of how the first decemvirate emerged.Ten Men!To alleviate the concerns of the people, we see the rise of the decemvirs. The decemviri consulari imperio legibus scribundis ‘the ten men with consular imperium for the writing down of the laws' have a very specific task. It is considered of such importance that normal governance is suspended while the decemvirs do their things. The task is to put down the best laws of Rome and Greece into a document that can be placed in public for use in perpetuity.There are some concerns about what this decemvirate is designed to achieve from the out set. Livy suggests that there may have been legitimate concerns about this being a grab for power by the privileged patricians. This is supported by the requests for the Icilian law and the land allotment on the Aventine that it provided to be kept in place (Interested in the details of the Lex Icilia de Aventino Publicndo? We explore all the details in Episode 104 – Aventine, Aventine). There are also concerns that the decemvirate may attempt to dissolve the tribune of plebs, a magistracy that was hard won and often a thorn in the side of the patrician senate.Appius “Building Unity” ClaudiusWhen the consul for 452 BCE Menenius falls ill and is unable to fulfil his duties as consul, Appius Claudius (consul designate for 451 BCE) offers to support the remaining consul, Publius Sestius, by organising the decemvirate which is due to begin the next year. He works closely with the tribunes and other inserted senators and seems very invested in harmony, peace, and ensuring the unity of the state as they embark upon the codification of the laws.Things to listen out for:The way the decemvirs share powerA day in the life of the decemvirsThe charisma of Appius ClaudiusThe Ten Tables!Ager publicus (or the absence thereof)Suppression of tribunician powerOur PlayersConsuls of 452 BCEPublius Sestius Q. f. Vibi n. Capitolinus(?) Vaticanus (Pat)Lucius / Titus Menenius Agripp. f. Agripp. n. Lanatus (Pat)The First Decemvirate of 451 BCEMeet your decemvirs!The decemvirs are led by the consul designates for the year 451 BCEAppius Claudius Ap. f. M. n. Crassus Inrigillensis SabinusTitus Genucius L. f. L. n. AugurinusThey are joined byPublius SestiusLucius Veturius (Livy) / Titus Veturius (Dionysius of Halicarnassus)Gaius IuliusAulus ManliusPublius Sulpicius (Livy) / Servius Sulpicius (Dionysius of Halicarnassus)Publius Curiatius (Livy) / Publius Horatius (Dionysius of Halicarnassus)Titus RomiliusSpurius PostumiusThe Second Decemvirate of 450 BCEThis episode also features an introduction to the second decemvirate! Welcome back to our Appius with the mostest:Appius Claudius Ap. f. M. n. Crassus Inrigillensis SabinusThis time joined byQuintus Fabius Vibulanus M. f. M. n. (Pat) (cos. 467, 565, 459 BCE)Marcus Cornelius – f. Ser. n. Maluginensis (Pat)Marcus Sergius – f. – n, Esquilinus (Pat)Lucius Minucius P. f. M. n. Esquilinus Augurinus (Pat) (cos. 458 BCE)Titus Antonius – f. – n. Merenda (Pat)Manius Rabuleius – f. – n. (Pat, according to Dionysius of Halicarnassus, but thought now to be a plebeian name)Quintus Poetelius – f. – n. Lino Visolus (plebeian)Kaeso Duilius – f- n- Longus(?) (plebeian)Spurius Oppius – f. – n. Cornicen (plebeian)Sound CreditsMusical interlude and final credits: Bettina Joy de GuzmanAdditional sound effects: BBC Sound Effects (Beta)A day in ancient Rome; being a revision of Lohr's “Aus dem alten Rom”, with numerous illustrations, by Edgar S. Shumway (1885). Courtesy of Wikimedia CommonsFor our full show notes and edited transcripts, head on over to https://partialhistorians.com/Support the showPatreonKo-FiRead our booksRex: The Seven Kings of RomeYour Cheeky Guide to the Roman Empire Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more inform

We are thrilled to be joined by Dr Rob Cromarty, better known as Doc Crom, for this special episode on the Year of the Four Emperors. Doc Crom, is a teacher, author, and fellow fan of #PhallusThursdays and #FannyFriday over on twitter and we recommend you follow him for his excellent tweets about Latin literature and ancient artefacts. In this very special episode we talk about his journey into Classics and his take on the personalities and power struggles involved in the aftermath of the death of the Emperor Nero.Special Episode – The Year of the Four Emperors with Dr Rob CromartyWhat is ‘The Year of the Four Emperors’?The Emperor Nero made several mistakes in the last few years of his reign. Following the brutal suppression of a serious conspiracy against him, Nero left Rome in the hands of his freedmen so that he could compete in the Olympic Games. Back in Rome, the people were dealing with low grain supplies. The aristocracy had been alienated for years, and the increasing use of delatores (informers) only made matters worse. The army was also on edge after the execution of talented generals like Corbulo. The situation in early 68 CE was tense.The extent of Roman power in the crucial years of 68 and 69 CE. Image courtesy of Wikimedia Commons.That's RevoltingThe Year of the Four Emperors really kicks off with rebellion. In March, Caius Julius Vindex, then stationed in Gaul, revolted in protest against Nero’s tax policy. Some problems never change. Servius Sulpicius Galba, an old associate of some of the Julio-Claudians, was stationed in Spain and decided to throw his lot in with Vindex. Vindex’s rebellion was put down by Lucius Verginius Rufus, and Galba was declared a public enemy. But that did not last long. The Praetorian Prefect, Nymphidius Sabinus, promised the guard a hefty donative to transfer their allegiance from Nero to Galba, and before long the Senate had made Nero himself a public enemy.The First of the Four  Galba became emperor in June 68 CE after the suicide of Nero. As a stern, experienced candidate, he must have seemed like a promising choice. However, he soon acquired something of a reputation.  According to sources, his assumption of power involved the death of many, and he was stingy with money. Most importantly, he did not provide soldiers with the bonuses they had been promised in exchange for their support. As Tacitus (Hist. 1.49.6) remarked, “…no one would have doubted his ability to reign had he never been emperor.”Galba was also 73 years old and had no children. This didn’t bode well for stability, and so he decided to focus on improving his position in this area by adopting Lucius Calpurnius Piso in January of 69 CE, a deliberate snub to one of his most prominent supporters – Otho.A portrait bust of the Roman emperor Galba. This piece is held in the Antiquities Museum in the Royal Palace, Stockholm. Photo credit to Wolfgang Sauber via Wikimedia Commons.The Year of the Four Emperors, Take TwoTo say that Otho was displeased is an understatement. He bribed the Praetorians to back his cause; after all, they weren’t getting bonuses from Galba!  On the 15th of January 69 CE, Piso and Galba were assassinated in the forum. Otho thus became the first emperor to unequivocally acquire power by killing the previous emperor. Otho was well known as he had been a prominent member of Nero’s court; indeed, Nero’s most beloved wife, Poppaea Sabina, had once been married to Otho. Unlike Galba, who sought to distance himself from Nero and condemn his reputation, Otho played on the connection. However, he faced challenges from the outset. Otho became emperor on 15th January 69 CE and took control of the city of Rome, but another would-be emperor had already taken initiative. The soldiers in Germania Inferior refused to swear loyalty to Galba on the 1st January 69 CE, soon to be followed by the troops of Germania Superior. Vitellius had been stationed in Germania Inferior by Galba, and he began to organise his bid for power. Otho had a lot of support, but his forces were not close by, and he was defeated by Vitellius’ forces at the First Battle of Cremona and driven back to Bedriacum.  Rather than prolong the civil war, Otho committed suicide on 16th April 69 CE. But his death would not bring the conflict to an end.Silver Denarius of Otho, Rome mint. His bare head right, IMP M OTHO CAESAR AVG TR P around / Securitas standing left holding wreath and scepter, SECURITAS P R. RIC 8. BMCRE 17. Sear RCV 2162. Source: accla.orgLooking to learn more about Galba and Otho? We've got a vintage episode just for you.The Third of the FourOf all the emperors to reign in this period, Vitellius probably has the worst reputation (thank you, Flavians?). He had a good relationship with parts of the army and was a well-known figure from the Julio-Claudian period, but the sources record that he was also a glutton, and associated with actors, chariot-drivers and freedmen. As Vitellius’ popu

It's 453 BCE and just as Rome seems to be heading towards a legal milestone disaster strikes: it's a plague!Now plagues are terrible, of that there is no doubt, but how does this influence the path to codification? We're here to find out.Episode 108 – Plague and PoliticsThe Character of the PlagueIt is hard to identify the plague with certainty. What is clear from our later written sources is that the collective memory recalls this plague as highly contagious with the capacity to leap between species. People caught it but so too did some of the animals that people worked closely with. The origin of the plague and how it eventually came to an end are lost to us. In lieu of strong osteoarchaeological evidence, it is possible to interpret this plague as a shared idea of opposition to the codification of the laws, which the elites likely saw as infringing upon their power.Both Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus focus on the devastating consequences of the plague. Things to listen out for:The horrific death tollThe Aequians!The issue with the harvestWith 453 BCE wholly occupied with pestilence and its effects, everyone still standing is hoping for a better time in 452 BCE…The Athenian Junket Returns!Lucky for Rome, the plague does not go so far as Athens. The delegates sent out to find out about the law codes that others have produced return with some new ideas. There are some odd things about our narrative accounts though which Dr Rad delves into. Some pertinent questions:Why would the Romans go all the way to Athens?What are the law codes of the Greeks like? Do the Twelve Tables really suggest a Greek influence?What might our narrative accounts gain by suggesting a connection with Greece at this point?Rome's Heading into Uncertain TerritoryIt's fair to say that our narrative sources leave us somewhat dissatisfied. Our sources inspire less confidence the further we move into the Struggle of the Orders. Who are the patricians? Who are the plebeians? How were these demarcations understood by the Romans?Do our writers from the late Republican period really have a clear handle on what happened in the past? Will the Twelve Tables live up to the suspense? Only time will tell…Thomas Cole The Course of Empire. Desolation 1836. Courtesy of Wikimedia CommonsOur Players in 453BCEConsulsPublius Curiatus — f. — n. Fistus Trigeminus (Pat)Sextus Quinctilius Sex f. P. n. ‘Varus' (Pat)Suffect ConsulSpurius Furius Medullinus Fusus (cos. 464 BCE) (Pat)Flamen QuirinalusServius CorneliusAugurC. Horatius PulvillusOur Players in 452 BCEConsulsGaius/Lucius/Titus (?) Menenius Agripp. f. Agripp. n. Lanatus (Pat)Publius Sestius Q. f. Vibi. n. Capito(linus?) Vaticanus (Pat)Consular NominationsAppius Claudius Ap. f. M. n. Crassus Inrigillenssis Sabinus (Pat)Titus Genucius L. f. L. n. Augurinus (Pat)Our SourcesDr Rad reads Livy ab urbe condita 3.32Dr G reads Dionysius of Halicarnassus Roman Antiquities 10.53-54Sound CreditsA big shout out to Ancient History Hound, whose work we recommend Musical interlude and final credits: Bettina Joy de GuzmanAdditional sound effects: Freesound (User bone666138)For our full show notes and edited transcripts, head on over to https://partialhistorians.com/Support the showPatreonKo-FiRead our booksRex: The Seven Kings of RomeYour Cheeky Guide to the Roman Empire Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

We jump into 454 BCE where we start to see the consequences of the events of the previous year play out. It's hard to get away from our “Roman Achilles” who, in his position as plebeian tribune, levels a charge of “injuring the state” against the former consul Romilius. This sets up a cascade of interesting incidents.Episode 107 – Let the Codification BeginThere's little agreement between our major written sources for this year. Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus diverge in much of the details even though they hit upon some shared touchstones.But this is partly about what we don't know…Dr Rad explores some of the complexities of who is who during this period. While our sources use categories like ‘patrician' and ‘plebeian', these terms offer a binary model for thinking about the structure of Roman society. Often this is a simplification of what was really happening. By the time we get to the first century BCE when these histories were written, the composition of these groups is more clear cut than they were in the fifth century.Speeches as didactic toolsDr G delves into Dionysius of Halicarnassus' use of speeches as a means of teasing out a Roman perspective. Speeches are a significant feature in his writing and sets his work apart from Livy during this period. Dionysius' penchant for rhetoric offers a means of appreciating how the Romans thought. They also offer a framework for Greek readers to appreciate the reasoning of the Romans.Listen in for…Consuls with attitude!A story of a father, a son, and filial dutyThe Lex Aternia TarpeiaThe law about the laws!A surprising consular returnThe laws of SolonOur Players for 454 BCEThe ConsulsSpurius Tarpeius M. f. M.n. Montanus Capitolinus (Pat.)Aulus Terminius/Aternius – f. – n. Varus Fontinalis (Pat.)The Consuls of 455 BCETitus Romilius T. f. T. n. Rocus Vaticanus (Pat)Gaius Veturius P. f. – n. Cicurinus (Pat)Tribune of the PlebsLucius Siccius Dentatus “The Roman Achilles”Aedilis plebisLucius AlienusPatricians of NoteSpurius VerginiusAulus Verginius – legateSpurius Postumius Albus (Regillensis) – cos. 466 BCEAulus Manlius (Vulso?) – cos. 474 BCEPublius or Servius Sulpicius Camerinus (Cornutus?) – cos. 461 BCEPlebeians of NoteMarcus IciliusSound creditsWith gratitude we offer thanks to Bettina Joy de Guzman for the evocative musical interlude that accompanies this episode.Additional sound effects courtesy of Alexander Nakarada – Nomadic Sunset and BBC Sound Effects (Beta)Final credits: Excerpt from ‘Ancient Arcadian Harp’ by Cormi‘Consul' by Pascal QuidalutFor our full show notes and edited transcripts, head on over to https://partialhistorians.com/Support the showPatreonKo-FiRead our booksRex: The Seven Kings of RomeYour Cheeky Guide to the Roman Empire Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

Medusa fills the imagination with a very particular kind of fascination. Pity for her situation and dread of what she is capable of make her one of the most recognisable figures from Greek myth. She has transcended that context with her story reimagined by the Romans, the artists of the Renaissance, and she continues to excite wonder today.We sat down to talk about Medusa and her representation with the fabulous Liv, host of Let's Talk about Myths Baby.Special Episode – Medusa with Let's Talk About Myths BabyIn this far-reaching conversation, we'll be considering some of the key stories that make up the mythological world of Medusa including: How she came to have snakes for hairThe challenges she faced as the mortal Gorgon And how her representation often reflects the values of the context of the artwork.Who is Medusa?When you start to look, Medusa is everywhere (but also, don’t look!). She is an extremely ancient figure best known for the Greek myths associated with the hero Perseus. Medusa is famous for her snaky hair and ability to turn living things to stone with her gaze. This ability has been immortalised in movies such as Clash of the Titans (1981) and its 2010 remake, and Percy Jackson and the Lightning Thief (2010). Her decapitated head—the Gorgoneoin—can be found on the breastplate of the goddess Athena, the logo for Versace and the Sicilian flag, as well as decorating many ancient buildings, floors and pottery. Medusa endures today as a polyvalent symbol of danger and empowerment. She recently featured in Assassin’s Creed Odyssey (2018) and her name is given to the crime network in The Hustle (2019), the gender-swapped reboot of Dirty Rotten Scoundrels (1988). Join us as we discuss Medusa’s journey to becoming a symbol that can seemingly serve many masters.Ancient Accounts of MedusaThis is not an exhaustive list, but a guide to those we mention in this discussion and a great place to start reading!Hesiod Theogony 270ff Homer Iliad 5.741 – The Gorgon's head is described as a “ghastly monster” and a “potent symbol of Zeus”. Also see 8.349, where Hector's gaze is likened to that of Gorgo and 11.36f for a description of a Gorgon's head on the face of Agamemnon's shield.Ovid Metamorphoses 4.604-803 Pseudo-Apollodorus Bibliotheca 2.4 Depictions of Medusa in ArtA great deal of Medusa's complexity has developed through her reception over time. This is particularly apparent in art. We explore a few key examples that draw attention to a range of interpretationsThe Rondanini MedusaDating to the late Hellenistic or Augustan periods, the Rondanini Medusa is iconic. It captured the imagination of Goethe during his travels in Italy and it shares many visual elements with the Versace logo as well.“So-called “Rondanini Medusa”. Marble, Roman copy after a 5th-century BC Greek original by Phidias, which was set on the shield of Athena Parthenos.” Source: Wikimedia Commons, photograph by MatthiasKabel, 2005-10-26.Perseus by Cellini, 1545-1554This exceptional bronze can be found in Florence where it offers interpretation of the ancient myth and comment on Medici politics…Bronze and marble (base), 1545–1554. Under the Loggia dei Lanzi, Florence, since 1554. Image Source: Wikimedia Commons, photograph by Jastrow, 13-9-2005Medusa by Caravaggio 1595-98Florence is home not only to the Cellini bronze, but also the famous Caravaggio portrait, where the face of Medusa is interchangeable with that of the artist himself.Uffizi Gallery, post-restoration. Image Source: Wikimedia CommonsYou can also explore Caravaggio's Testa di Medusa in detail here. Bust of the Medusa by Bernini 1644/8 Liv cites Bernini's Medusa as a piece that encourages empathy for the subject. This perspective will come to the fore again in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries.Held by the Musei Capitolini, Rome. Source: Wikimedia Commons, photograph by Miguel Hermoso Cuesta, 17-4-2014. You can explore Bernini's sensitive artistry in detail here.Medusa in King's Quest 3, 1986Check out this quality graphic! For Dr G, this was a definitely encounter with Medusa. For many children of the 80s, encountering myths through computer games was a window into the ancient world and its amazing stories.Screenshot sourced from here.Medusa by Luciano Garbati 2008 Garbati's Medusa flipped the heroic narrative of Perseus and cast our snake-haired heroine as a woman of her own destiny. This reimagining of Medusa's story demonstrates how cultural perspective can shift representation. You can explore high quality images of Garbati's work here. The complexities of Medusa's story allow for a variety of interpretations. Garbati's sculpture positions her as a figure of female empowerment, gaining power by taking the head of Perseus. The image of her head severed from her body has also been repurposed as political imagery by pro-Trump, anti-Hillary campaigners. In such cases, the myth of Medusa is designed to keep women from power. Why are we drawn back to her s

We continue to follow the cause of our Roman Achilles–more formally known as Lucius Siccius Dentatus–in 455 BCE. Dentatus is truly the star of the this period of history from the perspective of Dionysius of Halicarnassus and Dr G has a lot to say about that!Episode 106 – Spoiler AlertWhat can we glean from a history written long after the fact?Dr Rad takes us through some of the key concerns we face when approaching the written sources for the early republic. Part of the trouble steams simply from the time of the events when people like Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus lived centuries later. But we also run into the challenge of stock figures, whose names and existence are open to question. Such figures serve an important role in bringing a historical narrative to life.The complications of public discourseThe traditionalist streak runs deeply through the patricians. This comes as no surprise as they are the beneficiaries of the structures already in place in Rome, but it does lead to some questionable behaviour. Things to listen out for:The patricians position in the forumThe challenges raised by the pons or ‘voting bridge'Patrician power called into question through trialsSome intriguing exchanges through the goddess Ceres…Trouble in Tusculum!A real set to between Romilius and SicciusThe discrepancy between Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus about the treasuryOur PlayersThe ConsulsTitus Romilius T. f. T. n. Rocus Vaticanus (Pat)Gaius Veturius P. f. – n. Cicurinus (Pat)Tribunes of the PlebsL. IciliusL. Alienus+ 8 others!Notable PlebeiansLucius Siccius DentatusSome Family Appearancesthe Postumiithe Semproniithe CloeliiOur SourcesDr G reads Dionysius of Halicarnassus Roman Antiquities 10.40-47Dr Rad reads Livy ab urbe condita 3.31Further ReadingInterested in knowing more about this period in Rome's history. Take a leaf from Dr Rad and jump into some scholarly reading:Cornell, T. J. 1995. The Beginnings of RomeForsythe, G. 2005. A Critical History of Early RomeMomigliano, A. 2005. ‘The Rise of the Plebs in the Archaic Age of Rome' in Rafflaub, K. (ed) Social Struggles in Archaic Rome: New Perspectives on the Conflict of the OrdersRafflaub, K. 2005. ‘From Protection and Defense to Offense and Participation: Stages in the Conflict of the Orders' in Rafflaub, K. (ed) Social Struggles in Archaic Rome: New Perspectives on the Conflict of the OrdersRoman warrior charging – Alex Broeckel. Source: Pinterest.Sound CreditsSound Effects courtesy of BBC Sound Effects (Beta)Final credits: Excerpt from ‘Ancient Arcadian Harp’ by CormiFor our full show notes and edited transcripts, head on over to https://partialhistorians.com/Support the showPatreonKo-FiRead our booksRex: The Seven Kings of RomeYour Cheeky Guide to the Roman Empire Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

There's nothing quite like learning that there's a Roman Achilles! In this episode we get to meet the man behind the legend.Episode 105 – The Roman AchillesBefore we jump in, let's find out where things stand. It's 455 BCE and our narrative sources have put forward the case that the opening up of the Aventine was an important step under the new collective of ten tribunes. But all is not well on the homefront of Rome. Things get off to a bad start when the consuls try to forcibly raise the levy. The tribunes step up to the plate in defence of the plebeians and we delve into what privileges and powers go along with the position.What we begin to see is the some of the complex workings of contested public space and the challenges of fighting for your rights with only a small crowd of citizens. As the crowd of disaffected plebeians swells in significance, the new consuls are faced with a dilemma – met with the crowd or remain in the safety of the senate…How does the tribunicianship operate?This seems to be a big looming question in our sources. There's a range of possible activities that an expanded collective can work towards. The capacity to be decisive, to operate on multiple fronts for common goals, to get passionate about taking strong action. It's intriguing to see how this potential is redirected under the influence of the patricians.Events to anticipate:The tribunes enter a meeting of the senateA big push for the law about the lawsA consular venture to Tusculum to save them from the AequiansA controversial decision about what to do with some of the spoils of warSome clear deviation between the narrative focus of Livy and Dionysius of HalicarnassusA speech from the ‘Roman Achilles' including mention of the corona aureaOur PlayersThe ConsulsTitus Romilius T. f. T. n. Rocus Vaticanus (Pat)Gaius Veturius P. f. – n. Cicurinus (Pat)Tribunes of the PlebsL. IciliusL. Alienus+ 8 others!Notable PlebeiansLucius Siccius Dentatus “born with teeth”Our SourcesDr G reads Dionysius of Halicarnassus Rom. Ant. 10.33-39.Dr Rad reads Livy Ab Urbe Condita 3.31Looking to brush up of the historical events Dentatus refers to in his speech? You can check out the happenings of 486 BCE here and catch the action of 473 BCE here.Joseph-Désiré Court 1820 Achilles Introduced to Nestor. Courtesy of Wikimedia CommonsSound CreditsSound Effects courtesy of BBC Sound Effects (Beta)Final credits: Excerpt from ‘Ancient Arcadian Harp’ by CormiFor our full show notes and edited transcripts, head on over to https://partialhistorians.com/Support the showPatreonKo-FiRead our booksRex: The Seven Kings of RomeYour Cheeky Guide to the Roman Empire Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

As far as incredible women in history go, it's hard to top Agrippina the Younger. Political, ambitious, and a savvy operator are all ways we might interpret the evidence that remains for her life. But its fair to say that our ancient sources are a little less than kind.Special Episode – Agrippina the Younger with Dr Emma SouthonQuite the Pedigree…As the Julio-Claudian family developed into a fully formed imperial dynasty, Agrippina the Younger emerged as an important figure in the rule of three emperors: her brother Caligula, her uncle (and later husband) Claudius, and her son Nero. She could trace her connections back to Augustus through her mother's line. She was also the daughter of the wildly popular Germanicus, who died too soon and under circumstances palled with suspicion. Her family connections through her father were Claudian and ultimately this meant she embodied the Julio-Claudians. After the demise of her siblings, we can think of Agrippina as the distilled essence of the family.But having an illustrious ancestry is not necessarily indicative of how one's life will turn out, and in this special episode, we have the great pleasure of sitting down with Dr Emma Southon, who has written an accessible academic history of Agrippina the Younger to delve further into the life of this amazing woman.A recent reconstruction of Agrippina the Younger as potentially the lead singer of an 80s band…Source: Royalty_Now on pinterest What does it take to write a historical biography?Dr Emma Southon's book Agrippina: Empress, Exile, Hustler, Whore was published by Unbound in 2018. This biography of Agrippina the Younger combines historical detail, engagement with the ancient sources and a colloquial tone to make for a roaring read.We consider the path to publication for this biography and how academics are finding ways to bring detailed critical history to a broader readership. Looking to delve further in the life and times of Agrippina?Here's some sources to get you started:Primary SourcesTacitus Annals, esp Books 12-14; Agrippina the Elder's tears as read in Agrippina the Younger's memoirs by Tacitus Annals 4.53Pliny the Elder Nat. 7.6 – Agrippina's breech birth Dio Cassius Roman History Books 59-62Suetonius' Life of Gaius, Life of Claudius, and Life of NeroSecondary SourcesBarrett, A. A. 1999. Agrippina: Sex, Power, and Politics in the Early Empire (Routledge)Barrett, A, A. 2002. Agrippina: Mother of Nero (Routledge) Ginsburg, J. 2005. Representing Agrippina: Constructions of Female Power in the Early Roman Empire (OUP)Southon, E. 2018. Agrippina: Empress, Exile, Hustler, Whore (Unbound)One of the most famous depictions of Agrippina on coinage is her representation with her sisters on the reverse of one of Gaius ‘Caligula' Augustus' issues. c. 37-41 CE. The depiction of living women on coinage was rare and Agrippina's appearance here is an exceptional moment in Julio-Claudian iconography.Before things went wrong… Nero and his mother, Agrippina the Younger depicted together on the obverse side. c. 54 CE. Source: Wikimedia Commons and Classical Numismatic Group, Inc.For our full show notes and edited transcripts, head on over to https://partialhistorians.com/Support the showPatreonKo-FiRead our booksRex: The Seven Kings of RomeYour Cheeky Guide to the Roman Empire Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

We return to the City of Rome in 456 BCE and follow the ongoing domestic struggles that Rome faces in defining herself in terms of transparency at law.Episode 104 – Aventine, AventineWith a new crop of tribunes come some important consequences. While in previous years the tribunes have focused on the goal of ensuring that there is a clear and public way for any Roman citizen to access the laws in order to understand them, with new tribunes comes a shift in thinking.A Return to Redistribution of Public LandAfter a long hiatus, the issue of public land returns to the tribunician agenda. It's safe to say that things are about to get messy in Rome. If there's one thing the patricians never seem to want to budge on, it's negotiating the fair use of public land.Ten Tribunes Means Twice the Representation!Not only are there new tribunes but there are now plenty more of them representing the plebeians. We'll get a taste of what can happen with a larger group of tribunes. That's a lot of bodies to protect the interests of citizens and we'll see how that magisterial privilege can be deployed.The Lex Icilia de Aventino PublicandoWe delve into the nitty gritty of the law passed in this year which is unusual for a number of reasons.The PlayersConsulsMarcus Valerius M'. f. Volusi n. Maxumus Lactuca (pat)Spurius Verginius A. f. A. n. Tricostus Caeliomontanus (pat)TribunesLucius IciliusLucius AlienusSourcesDr Rad read Livy Ab Urbe Condita 3.31Dr G reads Dionysius of Halicarnassus Roman Antiquities 10.31-32J. M. W. Turner c.1820s-1836. Rome, from Mount Aventine. Finding a painting that could do justice to the early Republican Aventine was tough, so we opted for this gorgeous, though much later view back onto nineteenth century Rome instead.Sound CreditsSound Effects courtesy of BBC Sound Effects (Beta), Pond5, and Lewi PilgrimFinal credits: Excerpt from ‘Ancient Arcadian Harp’ by CormiFor our full show notes and edited transcripts, head on over to https://partialhistorians.com/Support the showPatreonKo-FiRead our booksRex: The Seven Kings of RomeYour Cheeky Guide to the Roman Empire Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

It's c. 457 BCE in Rome and in this episode we explore the state of affairs in the wake of Cincinnatus' dictatorship.Rome's affairs with her neighbours are not off to a good start. As the City lifts her gaze outward after recent troubles, nearby peoples have taken matters into their own hands. The Sabines and the Aequians are both making bold moves stretching Rome's attention both to the north and the south.Episode 103 – Ten Terrific TribunesThe Law About the LawsAs Rome faces threats from a range of peoples, the usual patrician policy of fielding a citizen army through the levy comes about. We're in pretty familiar territory here as the levy has been a sore point for years according to our narrative tradition and we can reliably expect the tribunes of the people to request greater transparency in relation to the laws. The desire for a law code that is public and accessible is increasing.As tensions rise, the differing political aims of the Senate, the consuls, and the tribunes clash.Things to Look Forward toRoman masculinity – how to define it and what it means from the perspective of a Greek writerCincinnatus makes a fantastically interesting speech!Horatius tries to rally the people together for war while preserving the patrician position of privilegeA discussion of some of the intersections and conflicts that arise from gender and class narrativesA rhetorical exploration of age versus youthA proposal to increase the number of plebeian tribunes to ten!The senatorial back-and-forth regarding the pros and cons of increasing the number of the plebeian tribunesHints of when we recorded this piece – during the long Australian bushfire season, but prior to concerns about COVID-19Who's WhoConsulsQuintus Minucius P.f. M. n. Esquilinus (pat.)Marcus (Gaius?) Horatius M. f. M. n. Pulvillus (pat.) COS IITribunesAulus VerginiusVolscius Fictor (?)Two or three other tribunes unnamed in our sourcesSourcesDr G reads Dionysius of Halicarnassus Roman Antiquities 10.26-30Dr Rad reads Livy Ab Urbe Condita 3.29-30Jean Lemaire c. 1645-55 Roman Senators and LegatesSound CreditsSound Effects courtesy of BBC Sound Effects (Beta), and John Stracke via Sound BibleFinal credits: Excerpt from ‘Ancient Arcadian Harp’ by CormiFor our full show notes and edited transcripts, head on over to https://partialhistorians.com/Support the showPatreonKo-FiRead our booksRex: The Seven Kings of RomeYour Cheeky Guide to the Roman Empire Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

We had the very great pleasure to sit down with Emeritus Professor Edwin Judge to discuss his latest publication The Failure of Augustus: Essays on the Interpretation of a Paradox (2019). Special Episode – An Interview with Emeritus Professor Edwin JudgeJudge has a long-reaching career, accepting his first junior lectureship in the 1950s and going on accept the inaugural History Chair at Macquarie University in Sydney. Dr G and Dr Rad met as undergraduate students at Macquarie so it is our extraordinary pleasure to sit down with Judge and have the chance to chat. Dr G (left) holding Cooley's Res Gestae, Emeritus Professor Edwin Judge (centre), and Dr Rad (right) holding Judge's The Failure of AugustusIn this far reachingconversation we learn about Judge's evolving thoughts on Augustusover the course of his academic career, some of the salientconnections between Augustus and Tiberius that emerge fromconsidering Augustus' aims, the content of the Res GestaeDivi Augusti, and considerationof Augustus in terms of failure.Things to look forward to:Aconsideration of the importance of understanding time as a means ofapproaching historical interpretationThechallenges that Tiberius faces in the wake of Augustus' deathTheimportance of the Res Gestae as a lens to Augustus' life andcareerKey materialsfor approaching the subject of Augustus' failure.The cursus honorem of Augustus, as visualised by Edwin Judge. Used with permission of the author. This table appears on the cover of The Failure of Augustus and page 8 of the collection. ReadingrecommendationsCooley, Alison E. 2009. Res Gestae Divi Augusti: Text, Translation and CommentaryJudge, E. A. 2019. The Failure of Augustus: Essays on the Interpretation of a Paradox Lintott, Andrew W. 1999. Violence in Republican RomeRidley, Ronald T. 2003. The emperor's retrospect: Augustus' Res gestae in epigraphy, historiography and commentaryFinal credits: Excerpt from ‘Ancient Arcadian Harp’ by Cormi For our full show notes and edited transcripts, head on over to https://partialhistorians.com/Support the showPatreonKo-FiRead our booksRex: The Seven Kings of RomeYour Cheeky Guide to the Roman Empire Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

It's c. 458 BCE andRome's troubles culminate in the appointment of a dictator. In thisepisode we explore the context which leads to the appointment of thisemergency position and trace Rome's progress as she attempts to faceenemies on multiple fronts.Episode 102 – Cincinnatus, DictatorNot only are Roman forces squaring off against the Sabines and the Aequians, but there are ongoing issues on the home front. According to the narrative histories of Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus, the tribunes of the plebs continue to lobby for transparency regarding the laws. The struggle to pin down a public law code seems elusive. In this year it is also overshadowed by the troubles that Minucius' consular forces face in the south-east.The Aequians are currently led by Cloelius Gracchus and the Roman forces led by the consul Minucius have been trapped in a valley, while the other consul Nautius is campaigning against the Sabines.The DictatorOur sources are at pains to let us know that Cincinnatus was both unprepared for his appointment as dictator and not particularly pleased to have the role foist upon him. This is part of a larger trope established in Latin literature of the good leader whose fitness for the role is encapsulated by his lack of ambition for it. In this way, both Livy and Dionysius offer us a chance to see Cincinnatus—and indeed this era of patrician history—as one populated with brave, proud characters who understood the hierarchy and were staunchly traditional in their outlook.What does a dictatordo?As the most significant magistrate in Roman society, the dictator has a superior legal capacity to make commands and can hold the position for up to six months. Despite his generally dissatisfaction with the situation, Cincinnatus jumps straight in. We'll be looking at how he goes about:Raising anarmyOrganisingtroopsAnd gettingon the marchWe explore what Cincinnatus gets up to in the role and how he contributes to supporting Minucius against the Aequians at Mount Algidus. Tune in to hear all about: The military tactics Cincinnatus deploys How Cincinnatus deals with requests for peace Some rather unusual divisions of booty Just what happens to the Aequian city of Corbio A triumph! The incredible virtus of Cincinnatus! Alexander Cabanel 1843. Cincinnatus receives the ambassadors of Rome Our players458 BCEDictatorL. QuinctiusL. f. L. n. CincinnatusMaster of the HorseL. TarquitiusL. f. FlaccusConsulsC. NautiusSp. f. Sp. n. Rutilus – cos IIL. MinuciusP. f. M. n Esquilinus AugurinusPrefect of the CityQ. FabiusVibulanusTribunesAulusVerginiusMarcusVolscius Fictor (it's not certain whether Volscius holds thetribunianship in 459 BCE)Aequian LeaderCloeliusGracchusDictator's wifeRacilia‘Freedom of theCity'L.Mamilius theTusculanSourcesDr Rad explores Livy 3.26-29Dr G is considering Dionysius of Halicarnassus Roman Antiquities 10.23-25Sound CreditsSound Effects courtesy of BBC Sound Effects (Beta) and Free SFXFinal credits: Excerpt from ‘Ancient Arcadian Harp' by CormiFor our full show notes and edited transcripts, head on over to https://partialhistorians.com/Support the showPatreonKo-FiRead our booksRex: The Seven Kings of RomeYour Cheeky Guide to the Roman Empire Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

Join Dr Rad as she reminiscences about one of her film favourites and pays tribute to the man that has unwittingly dominated her life for over a decade. Special Episode – A Tribute to Kirk Douglas2020 has been on my radar for a while, listeners, as it marks sixty years since the iconic movie Spartacus was released. However, just a few days before the Oscars, the star of this film has passed away at the age of 103. Given the helicopter crash, the strokes, it is amazing that he lived this long, but I still feel very melancholy that a film star of his stature is no more. The Chin Dimple that COULD launch a thousand ships. Kirk Douglas' magnificent face-acting during the famous ‘I'm Spartacus' scene. Image courtesy of https://hollywoodrevue.wordpress.com/2016/12/11/simpson-sunday-cartoon-without-pity/ I have a strong affinity for Issur Danielovitch (Kirk Douglas) and not just because I grew up watching his movies (which I did). Loyal listeners will be aware that I ended up studying the production of Spartacus (1960), the historical film based on the famous slave revolt against Rome. As the titular hero, but more importantly as the producer of this film, Douglas played a key role in shaping the representation of the rebellious gladiator. Indeed, it was quite an accomplishment that this movie made it to the screen at all, as film star/producer Yul Brynner was also championing a Spartacus project at the same time. On top of this rivalry, Douglas' project was plagued with personality clashes and squabbles about the overall vision for the film. This led to constant changes to the script, and Douglas did little to contain this, earning the nickname ‘General Mixmaster' on set. Douglas in costume on set talking to his young, and not particularly well-known, director Stanley Kubrick. The men had worked together previously on Paths of Glory, but the tensions over Spartacus would cause a rift to open between them. Image courtesy of https://www.rapportoconfidenziale.org/?p=36320 However, it is undeniable that Douglas' drive is one of the most important factors that led to the completion and success of this film in 1960. The movie is largely remembered these days for the iconic ‘I'm Spartacus' scene and its' status as the film that finally broke the blacklist (in America at least). The real story about the breaking of the blacklist is a little more complicated, which you can read about here. During this dark time in America, screenwriters were some of the only professionals in this environment who could potentially evade the restrictions placed on their employment. One such blacklistee, Dalton Trumbo, had been hired by Bryna (Douglas' production company). Trumbo had been working tirelessly to see his name restored to the credits by the time he started writing the Spartacus script. Douglas probably did not intend to grant this desire during the early days, but he had changed his mind by the time of the premiere. Kirk Douglas spent hours trying to get his scene on the cross just right. Whilst he may have been one of the causes of confusion on set, no one could question his dedication to Spartacus. Image courtesy of https://www.nieuwsblad.be/cnt/dmf20161208_02615140 There were a variety of external pressures that went into this decision (cough cough Otto Preminger), and we shouldn't imagine that after Spartacus, the blacklist vanished. Really, this was a sign that change was ahead. The blacklist lingered painfully into the 1960s, but the rebel gladiator had once again struck a blow for freedom. Although there's a lot more to the end of the blacklist than this one film, Douglas does indeed deserve a large share of the credit for making what was a bold decision for the time, and one that could have had unfortunate consequences for himself, Bryna Productions or Universal-International. Farewell, Kirk Douglas, you charismatic egomaniac. Like Spartacus, you will not be soon forgotten. If you enjoy learning about the 1950s in Hollywood, check out our previous episode on Spartacus and the blacklist series of You Must Remember This. For our full show notes and edited transcripts, head on over to https://partialhistorians.com/Support the showPatreonKo-FiRead our booksRex: The Seven Kings of RomeYour Cheeky Guide to the Roman Empire Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

It can be quite insulting to be told to ‘talk to the hand' and, for the Romans, it would seem that being told to ‘talk to the tree' is just as problematic. In this episode, we explore the tail end of 459 BCE and enter 458 BCE. It's fair to say that some mud is being flung between Rome and her neighbours… Episode 101 – Talk to the Tree The Trouble withMurder…Livy and Dr Rad have some excellent details to offer about the ongoing and troubling ambiguity surrounding the plebeian push for the ‘the law about the laws'. This ongoing issues between patrician interests and the tribunes fighting for greater transparency is soon waylaid, however, by concerns pertaining to the recent accusation of murder! Dr Rad delves into the murky narrative and Livy's account of the affair.New Year, SameTribunesIntrigues and law cases regarding potentially spurious accusations of murder give way to new elections and we find ourselves in c. 458 BCE. Both Verginius and Volscius make it back it into the tribuneship! Listen out for Dr G forgetting Volscius (awkward for everyone) and temporarily being unable to read a map (to clarify, the Sabines and the Aequians are both East of Rome, North and South respectively).Trouble in the SouthIt isn't long before Rome learns of Aequian incursions into Tusculum, which is a huge surprise given the peace treaty concluded between Rome and the Aequians just the year before. Listen in to find out how: Rome reacts to threats from the south the fetiales get involved and oak trees take on an important cameo role While Dionysius ofHalicarnassus gets swept up in the military narrative, Livy seeks tobalance the challenges the Rome faces externally and internally…Our Players459 BCEConsulsQ. Fabius M.f. K. VibulanusL. CorneliusSer. f. P. n. Maluginensis UritinusPrefect of the City LuciusLucretius (Tricipitinus)Tribunes Aulus Verginius Marcus Volscius Fictor (maybe a tribune)Quaestors AulusCorneliusQuintusServilius (Structus Priscus?)PatricianKaesoQuinctius 458 BCEConsuls C. NautiusSp. f. Sp. n. Rutilus – cos IIL. MinuciusP. f. M. n Esquilinus AugurinusPrefect of the City Q. FabiusVibulanusTribunes Aulus Verginius Marcus Volscius FictorQuaestorM. ValeriusM'. f. Volusi MaximusT. QuintiusCapitolinus BarbatusRoman EmbassyQ. FabiusVibulanus (also Prefect of the City)P. VolumniusAmintinus GallusA. PostumiusAlbus RegillensisAequian LeaderCloeliusGracchus Claude Lorrain 1682 Ascanius Shooting the Stag of Sylvia, chosen for its artful arrangement of trees, which are quite pertinent to this episode. The story of Ascanius we'll save for another time. Additional sounds in this episode: BBC and WolframTonesFor our full show notes and edited transcripts, head on over to https://partialhistorians.com/Support the showPatreonKo-FiRead our booksRex: The Seven Kings of RomeYour Cheeky Guide to the Roman Empire Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

We've reached a hugemilestone! One hundred episodes is quite something and we're superchuffed to have made it this far. To celebrate we've put together avery special episode for you on the consulship.Episode 100 – The ConsulshipWhile our narrative history of Rome is still very much in the early republic, the consul is a position that many aficionados of ancient Rome are familiar with. But how much do we know about the consul especially in the early years of the republic? We're here to sift through the evidence! After the KingsAfter the expulsion of the Tarquins, Rome is left facing a crisis of governance. How best to restructure the state in the wake of the collapse of monarchy? The Romans innovative solution was to divide the powers of the rex between two men, thereby saving the populace from the tyranny of a sole ruler. But to claim that the Romans came to this decision cleanly, and with a clarity of what this would really look like, is to miss the fascinating complexities of the way the role developed over time.WhatMakes a Consul?In this special episode we'll trace the some of the key features of the consulship and explore what the position entailed in the early republic, the late republic, and the early empire. There's plenty to enjoy here including: a return to the relationship between magistracies and assemblies;the role of consuls in war;and the consuls' relationship with the gods.Alexandre Jacovleff ‘Ancient Roman Senators' illustration for The General History Edited by Satyricon (1911) SourcesInterested in learning more about the consulship? These are the major sources we consulted in preparation for this episode and we definitely recommend them for getting a handle on the subject!Beck, H., Duplá, A., Jehne, M., & Pino Polo, F. 2011. ‘The republic and its highest office: some introductory remarks on the Roman consulate’ in Beck, H., Duplá, A., Jehne, M., Pina Polo, F. (eds) Consuls and Res Publica: Holding High Office in the Roman Republic (Cambridge University Press), 1-15.‘Consul' in Pauly's Realencyclopadie der classischen Altumsumswissenschaft Band IV, 1, col. 1112-1138 (1900).Eck, W. 2019. ‘Suffect consul‘ in Cancik, H., Schneider, H., Salazar, C. F. (eds) Brill's New Pauly (Last accessed 29/9/2019) Drogula, F. K. 2015. Commanders and Command in the Roman Republic and Early Empire (University of North Carolina Press)Gizewski, C. 2019. ‘Consul(es)' in Cancik, H., Schneider, H., Salazar, C. F. (eds) Brill's New Pauly (Last accessed 29/9/2019)Hölkeskamp, K. 2011. ‘The Roman republic as theatre of power: the consuls as leading actors’ in Beck, H., Duplá, A., Jehne, M., Pina Polo, F. (eds) Consuls and Res Publica: Holding High Office in the Roman Republic (Cambridge University Press), 161-181.Hurlet, F. 2011. ‘Consulship and consuls under Augustus’ in Beck, H., Duplá, A., Jehne, M., Pina Polo, F. (eds) Consuls and Res Publica: Holding High Office in the Roman Republic (Cambridge University Press), 319-35.Malik, S.; Davenport, C., ‘Mythbusting Ancient Rome – Caligula’s Horse’ (4/5/2017), The Conversation (Last accessed on 5/10/2019) Scullard, H. H. 1982. From the Gracchi to Nero (Routledge, London)Smith, C. 2011. ‘The magistrates of the early Republic’, in Beck, H., Duplá, A., Jehne, M., Pina Polo, F. (eds) Consuls and Res Publica: Holding High Office in the Roman Republic (Cambridge University Press), 19-40.For our full show notes and edited transcripts, head on over to https://partialhistorians.com/Support the showPatreonKo-FiRead our booksRex: The Seven Kings of RomeYour Cheeky Guide to the Roman Empire Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

It is c. 459 BCE and Rome faces the consequences of the Capitol having been seized and a consul killed in the previous year. The challenges come on two fronts: Tusculum and Antium. Episode 99 – Tusculum and Antium Consuls Quintus Fabius M. f. K. n. Vibulanus cos. III Lucius Cornelius Ser. f. P. n. Maluginensus Uritnus Trouble at the MarginsThe Latins andHernicians (Rome's allies) come to Rome to report that the Volsciansand the Aequians are still causing trouble at the edges of alliedterritory. Rome sends some troops to Antium.The Aequianssurprise attack Rome's friend Tusculum. According to Dionysius thisinvolves enslaving many of the women but leaving many of the menuntouched. The Romans are pretty upset by this turn of events andthrow themselves into action.These tussles lead to military actions in Algidum and Ecetra, both of which are near the territory of the Aequians and the latter is described by Dionysius as the “most prominent city of the Volscian nation” (Dion. Hal. Ant. Rom. 10.21.3).How Do You Solve aProblem Like Antium?Rome has been raiding Antium for the past few years and recently converted the city into a Roman colony. None of these measures can be considered wholly successful. As news of the seizure of Rome's Capitol reaches south, it seems like a good time to revolt. This is spearheaded by the Volscians, which makes perfect sense as Antium is part of their historical sphere of influence.Livy and Dionysius of Haliarnassus disagree on a range of details about how this conflict unfolds so it's fair to say that we're less than impressed with our narrative sources right now! Nevertheless, what they do tell us is very interesting:Livy has Rome heading in with a force made up of Romans and allies and devastating the Volscian camp by surprising them. Dionysius offers us a tale of Rome turning Antium into a camp by surrounding it with palisades!Who's Doing TheFighting Anyway?Despite Rome facinga war on two fronts this year, Livy suggests that when the forces aredrawn up, they are mostly comprised on allied troops, with only athird of the manpower offered by Rome herself. Is this a sign ofRome's growing hegemony over her immediate neighbours?Join us for somevery conflicting accounts from Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus aswe delve into the complicated relationships between the Romans,Volscians, Aequians, Tusculans, Latins, and Hernicians!P.S. Be on the listen for our podcat Hamish who makes a guest appearance! An artistic impression of what early Republican soliders may have looked like (right). If you know the artist, please let us know so we can credit them appropriately.Our Sources:Dr G isreading Dionysius of Halicarnassus Roman Antiquities 10.20-21DrR is reading Livy AbUrbe Condita 3.22-24Selected Secondary Sources:Broughton, T. R. S. 1951. The Magistrates of the RomanRepublic,Volume I (American Philological Association)Lomas, K. 2017. The Rise of Rome: from the Iron Age tothe Punic Wars(1000-264 BC) (Profile Books)Sound Credits:Additional sounds were provided by:Fesliyan StudiosPond5For our full show notes and edited transcripts, head on over to https://partialhistorians.com/Support the showPatreonKo-FiRead our booksRex: The Seven Kings of RomeYour Cheeky Guide to the Roman Empire Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

Dr Amy Place from the University of Leicester sits down with Dr Rad to discuss the humble Roman toga, fashion and social identity, and everyday life in late imperial Roman North Africa!On a recent tour to Australia, Place presented a paper for the SPQR Roman History Forum at Macquarie University on the representation of fashions in Late Roman North Africa. The Partial Historians we lucky enough to grab the chance to chat. *Special Episode* – What Does Your Toga Say About You?Late Roman North Africa is a time period and an area that is understudied, but just as fascinating as Italy. Place is particularly interested in how clothing is represented and how it was used to express social identity. Dominus Julius Mosaic from Carthage, Bardo Museum. Copyright credit: Sean Leatherbury/Manar al-Athar When are we talking? Dr Place’s research focuses on 200-550 CE. The late Roman empire is full of intrigue and was a time of great change. While there was some stability under the emperor Septimius Severus, who ruled from 193-211 CE, with his death and the succession of his son Caracalla, a century of turmoil began. Amidst the political chaos that characterised much of this century, the Christians rose in prominence. By the beginning of the fourth century, Rome would have its first Christian emperor, Constantine I. This emerging system would rapidly became established as the exclusive religion of the empire as Rome entered the fifth century.Where are we talking?    The focus of Place’s research has been the coastal regions of North Africa, examining an area that spans Namibia to Morocco. Parts of North Africa began to be acquired by Rome in the 2nd century BCE with the end of the Third Punic War. Roman influence continued to expand in this region throughout the late Republic and into the Empire. What is the source material like for fashion and togas? Place's research is based in part on literary sources but is supplemented with mosaics. She highlights the difficulties that come with using textual evidence to understand something that was visual. The terms used in the sources are not always easily matched to a surviving representation and it is extremely rare for any actual samples of clothing to survive to the modern day.  Matron at her Toilette Mosaic from Sidi Ghrib, Bardo. Copyright credit: Sean Leatherbury/Manar al-Athar. How did people in North Africa use clothing to construct and express their identity?Place’s research focuses on the impact that the growth of Christianity had on dress and identity. A particularly important author was Tertullian, a Christian writer who made some very vocal criticism of female dress in this region. Although Roman writers had been critical of women dressing too provocatively before the advent of Christianity, for Tertullian there was an extra moral imperative for women to dress modestly and plainly. Austerity was a means of advertising one’s commitment to the new religion, most especially if one was wealthy enough to have a choice. We see a stark contrast between words and deeds, however, when we consider the mosaics from the region. As Place notes, these don’t often show people have taken Tertullian’s advice – quite the opposite! Tune in to hear all Place's insights into the local trends for women and men and the place of the toga. Tomb cover for Victoria, originally from Tabarka, now in the Bardo. Copyright credit: Sean Leatherbury/Manar al-Athar. Interested in learning more about this fascinating topic? You can consider more of Dr Amy Place's work at Academia.edu For our full show notes and edited transcripts, head on over to https://partialhistorians.com/Support the showPatreonKo-FiRead our booksRex: The Seven Kings of RomeYour Cheeky Guide to the Roman Empire Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

It's c. 460 BCE andthis hectic year in Roman history continues! In this episode weconsider Rome in the wake of the sneak attack on the Capitol byHerdonius' disaffected Sabines. During the challenges of wrestlingcontrol back, the Romans lose one of their own. The consul PubliusValerius Pubicola falls in battle. This is a tragic loss and opensthe way for Lucius Cincinnatus to return to the narrative.Episode 98 – Cincinnatus, Suffect ConsulLooking to catch up on the narrative before diving into this episode? You can find out more about the earlier events of this year here.Who's WhoConsulsPubliusValerius P. f. Volusi n. Publicola (cos II)GaiusClaudius Ap. f. M. n. Inrigillensis (or Regillensis) SabinusSuffect Consul Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus Tribune of the PlebsAulusVerginiusMarcusVolscius FictorA Man of the LandThere's nothingquite like a man who farms. For fans of men of the land, Cincinnatusis here for you. We explore the important symbolism of Cincinnatusworking the land and his reaction to learning about his election assuffect consul.A New PoliticalStrategyCincinnatus takesthe opportunity to lead in a new way. With much rhetorical flourish,our new consul lays forth a plan that spells trouble for theplebeians and the ambitions of the tribunes. We dig into thediscrepancies between our sources – Livy and Dionysius ofHalicarnassus have different takes on the essential narrative. Thisis very revealing in terms of thinking about the aims of our writtensources for this period.Things to LookForward Toa taking ofauspicesa desire fora dictatorsomesenatorial love for our man CincinnatusAlexandre Cabanel 1843. Cincinnatus receiving the ambassadors of Rome. Image Source: Wikimedia CommonsOur SourcesPrimary sourcesDr G isreading Dionysius of Halicarnassus Roman Antiquities10.17-19DrR is reading Livy 3.19.1-3SecondarysourcesBroughton,T. R. S. 1951. The Magistrates of the Roman Republic,Volume I(American Philological Association)Eck,W. (Colonge) ‘Suffect Consul' Brill's New Pauly,Cancik, H. Schneider, H., Salazar, C. F. (eds.), accessed online29-9-2019Lomas,K. 2017. The Riseof Rome: from the Iron Age to the Punic Wars (1000-264BC) (Profile Books)Müller,C. (Bochum) ‘Q. Cincinnatus, L.'Brill's New Pauly,Cancik, H. Schneider, H., Salazar, C. F. (eds.), accessed online29-9-2019For our full show notes and edited transcripts, head on over to https://partialhistorians.com/Support the showPatreonKo-FiRead our booksRex: The Seven Kings of RomeYour Cheeky Guide to the Roman Empire Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

In this specialepisode, we're joined by Liz Smith, who has recently completed herdoctoral research of the representation of women's dress in statuaryat Macquarie University. Together we'll trace the threads of evidencefor women's attire in the Roman world.The Thread of Women's Representation with Liz SmithLiz's research includes the fashion of women's dress in ancient representations in order to investigate what we can learn about the representation of women. This means considering how representations of women in statuary were often mediated by a male perspective and asking what this might reveal about women's lived experience. The Importance of Material EvidenceA consideration of material evidence, especially when combined with inscriptions offers an alternative to the literary sources for thinking about women and daily life in the ancient world. Our evidence in this episode dates from the third century CE, which means we're thinking about a Rome embroiled in empire and imperial rule.In this episodewe'll be considering the head coverings on statues in the round andsepulchral depictions of women. We explore the implications of topicssuch as:drapery in statues and reliefsthe colour of statuarythe stolathe palladress as statusEpiktesisEpiktesis outlives her family. We consider the monument she dedicates to her husband, her children, and herself. Liz takes us through the pose adopted by Epiktesis – the Large Herculaneum Woman Type – and its implications. Grave stele dedicated by Epiktesis to her family, from Prilep, Macedonia. Skopje Archaeological Museum, inv. AMM 41. Photography © Skopje – Archaeological Museum of Macedonia. Photograph: Ortolf Harl 2017 November. The husband remainsunnamed in this relief as do the children. This in itself is somewhatunusual but this evidence goes to the next level when we considerthat the children are represented as divinities!With Epiktesisherself depicted in a very modest, unrevealing style and her daughterassuming the quite revealing Bathing Aphrodite Type, thisrepresentation has a lot to offer in terms of thinking about themeaning conveyed by poses and attire.Liz explains howsize plays a role in the representation of family in this monumentand we consider what this might have suggested to an ancient viewer.We also consider the unique aspects of this piece in terms of itsarrangement of the figures and their poses.Aurelia Eutychia “Iam Prosperous” c. 250s CEWe consider thesarcophagus dedicated by Aurelia to herself and her husband MarcusAurelius Marino which can still be seen today in Ferrara. Liz takesus through the significance of the statuesque features of thisartefact.Social status is aparticular feature at play in all these representations and thecapacity of Aurelia to have for a sarcophagus where the figuresdisplay a range of statuesque features tells us a lot about how shewanted to be understood by her community. Sarcophagus dedicated by Aurelia Eutychia to herself and her husband Marcus Aurelius Marino. Originally in Voghiera, then moved to Ferrara, Palazzo dei Diamanti, Italy. Front panel. Ferrara, Palazzo dei Diamanti, Italy. No inventory number. DAIR Inst. Neg. Rom. 64.2022 Sarcophagus dedicated by Aurelia Eutychia to herself and her husband Marcus Aurelius Marino. Side panel.Liz explores theimplications of Aurelia's personal representation of herself. Wediscuss the potential implications of being veiled versus not beingveiled.Here's the inscription found on the sarcophagus:Aurelia Eutychia built this sarcophagus while alive for herself and her husband Marcus Aurelius Marino a veteran of Syrian lineage at the behest of the patron and her most dutiful husband with whom she lived for forty-three years by order of the patron out of his own funds. If someone after the death of the both opens it they will deposit a thousand sesterces to the tax authorities.Translation ~ Liz SmithJoin us for a livelyexploration of women's representation through statuary andinscription!Addendum: In exciting news, in the time between our chat with Liz and the release of this episode, we can confirm that Liz has passed her doctoral examination and joins us as a full academic. Congratulations Dr Liz Smith!Edit: Since conducting this interview, further analysis of the sarcophagus dedicated by Aurelia has revealed the insight that Aurelia would have been Marcus Aurelius Marino’s enslaved property, before he freed and married her. As his freedwoman, Aurelia would have been bound by custom and law to respect Marcus and give him services (operae), even after her manumission. Accordingly, it is all the more interesting that Aurelia represented herself as an equal partner to her husband through the statuesque elements we see on the front and lateral sides. For further reading:Peter Stewart 2003. Statues in Roman SocietyFor our full show notes and edited transcripts, head on over to https://partialhistorians.com/Support the showPatreonKo-FiRead our booksRex: The Seven Kings of R

We return to our narrative of Rome's history of its foundation with some surprising Sabines. It's still 460 BCE , which is an indication of just how complicated Rome's history is becoming when we read our sources. Both Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus are very focused on the ongoing conflict between the Roman elites and the emerging claims to power from the plebeians. We wouldn't would to give too many spoilers away, but while the Romans are busy trying to figure out what their internal politics will look like, there might just be an enemy on the horizon!Episode 97 – Surprising SabinesYou can catch up on the earlier action of this year here.Just Your EverydayOngoing Political ConflictSome of thecomplications in the City stem from the young patricians who havebecome a force to be reckoned with, terrorising plebeians. Thetribunes have been lobbying for changes that would make Roman lawtransparent but so far there's been no real movement on the issue.There are a number of things to consider, such as:connections between this conflict and the First Succession;the use of annual levies by the patricians as a means of controlling the plebeians;and the role of local warfare in preventing plebeians from engaging fully in Rome's politics.Surprise, Surprise,it's the Sabines!Just when the Romansare caught up in their own problems, the Sabine Appius Herdoniusturns up with a goodly number of supporters and seizes the Capitol.Our sources disagree on just how large Herdonius' force is or who ispart of it, but, regardless of the figures and identities, thenarrative follows the same trajectory – infiltration!We discuss the various strategies credited to Herdonius for entering the city and his apparent aims in making such a bold move. Suffice it to say, word of Rome's internal unrest has spread…Sabine Attack as aMicrocosm of Rome's Internal TroubleNeedless to say, the Romans are less than pleased to have an intruder in the heart of the City. Like a kicked beehive, the citizens rally to defend themselves! It's not long though before this chaos turns into competing calls to arms. The consuls and tribunes seize upon the moment to offer differing opinions about the situation and urging the citizen body to divergent actions.Hear how thetensions rise and the Romans respond to the Sabine threat in thisepisode!Our Main PlayersConsulsPublius Valerius P. f. Volusi n. Publicola (cos. II)Gaius Claudius Ap. f. M. n. Inrigillensis (or Regillensis) SabinusTribunesAulus VerginiusMarcus Volscius FictorSabinesAppius HerdoniusTusculansLucius MamiliusOur SourcesLivy Ab Urbe Condita 3.15-18Dionysius of Halicarnassus Roman Antiquities 9.14-16Topography of the ancient Capitol, according to the arbitrary reconstitution of Nardini, in The Roman Capitol in Ancient and Modern Times (1906). Source: Wikimedia Commons For our full show notes and edited transcripts, head on over to https://partialhistorians.com/Support the showPatreonKo-FiRead our booksRex: The Seven Kings of RomeYour Cheeky Guide to the Roman Empire Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

Warning! This post and episode contain huge spoilers. Dr G and Dr Rad always enjoy a trip to the movies, as you tell from our past forays in classics like Spartacus, Gladiator, and the contemporary farce Hail, Caesar! We are planning to record more special episodes when we see a historical flick or television series that sparks our interest. This week we saw Tarantino’s latest offering, Once Upon a Time in Hollywood (2019). Bonus Episode – Once Upon a Time in HollywoodThe audio is a little variable on this one, but we decided to keep at much as possible rather than cut. Equipment checking is a high priority before our next recording session. Did we mention the spoilers? They are coming…The two maincharacters in this film (Rick Dalton, played by Leonardo DiCaprio,and Cliff Booth, played by Brad Pitt) are fictional, but the backdropto their story is historical. Whilst occasionally flashing back toearlier points, the majority of the film takes place in Hollywood,1969. 2019 marks the fifty-year anniversary, so the release istimely. This was a pivotal year for America in many ways. The protestmovement against the Vietnam War reached new heights in the wake ofthe Tet Offensive in 1968, not only in terms of the numbers whoattended protests such as Vietnam Moratorium Day, but also with thetrial of the Chicago Eight for demonstrations during the August 1968Democratic National Convention. This was also the year that theassassin of Martin Luther King Jr was captured and tried, and theBlack Panthers were named as enemies of the state by the FBI forbeing a communist organisation. These are not the events thatTarantino focuses on.What is Hollywood Anyway?Dalton is an actor trying to keep his career afloat and Booth is his stuntman, BFF and all-round handyman. The Hollywood that they used to know is disappearing. For decades, the film industry had been controlled by the major studios (such as MGM, Paramount, Warner Bros) and each movie was subject to strict censorship rules. By 1969, the studios were no longer as dominant and the Production Code had been abandoned, opening the door for a wider range of artists and film subjects. The Graduate (1967) would have been unthinkable at the beginning of the decade and in 1969 Dennis Hopper’s ground-breaking, counter-cultural classic, Easy Rider, would be released. Even so, Hollywood was about to be rocked by something more earth-shattering than a progressive movie. In August 1969, Charles Manson decided that it was time for his followers to unleash the race war that he had dubbed ‘Helter Skelter’ after the Beatles song from the 1968 White Album. This would lead to the grisly Tate and La Bianca murders. The crimes committed by the Manson Family had many implications, but it is the build-up to these events that Tarantino traces as Dalton and Booth cruise through Hollywood. Hollywood with a TwistJust as the audience is preparing to see Sharon Tate and her house guests get brutally murdered by Manson’s drug-addled followers, Tarantino turns audience expectations on their head. Dalton and Booth, who live next door to Tate and Polanski, are attacked by the Family and it is the latter who suffer a gruesome end. This is not the first time that Tarantino has ventured down this road with historical fare. Django Unchained (2013) and Inglorious Basterds (2009) both play with historical reality. Is it in the interest of providing his audience with a sense of catharsis? What are the implications of counterfactual history – of exploring the ‘What ifs?’ of history? This may seem harmless and perhaps beneficial; can exploring what didn’t happen help to shed fresh light on what did happen? Respected historians such as Niall Ferguson have trodden down this path, but others such as Richard J. Evans have emphatically refuted the value of “parlour games” that seem to lament ‘if only’, rather than ask ‘what-if?’ (Hatherley, 2014). Do these issues apply to historical films, which obviously aim to entertain? Is the silver screen a suitable place for such games, or does the wider audiences of a feature film make counterfactuals more dangerous? This is history at its most controversial. Join the Doctors as they explore the ins and outs of the 60s, hippies and history. Select BibliographyArticles Batty, E. (2019, July 26). What the F*ck You Just Watched: The Ending of ‘Once Upon a Time in Hollywood.’ Cosmopolitan.De La Garza, A. (2019, July 26). The True Story Behind Once Upon a Time… in Hollywood. Time Magazine.Evans, R. J. (2014, March 13). ‘What if’ is a waste of time. The Guardian.Hatherly, O. (2014, April 17). Altered Pasts: Counterfactuals in History by Richard J. Evans review – a ruthless, forensic demolition. The Guardian.PodcastsFor those interested in learning more about Hollywood in the Manson era, we cannot recommend ‘You Must Remember This’ enough. Host Karina Longworth has produced a 12-part series exploring Charles Manson, the Family and Hollywood in the late 1960s. If you a

Dr Radness travelled to Melbourne recently and met with the fantastic and erudite Dr Rhiannon Evans from La Trobe. Dr Evans is one of the famous voices on the Emperors of Rome podcast. In this special episode, Dr Rad and Dr Evans explore barbarians! *Special Episode* – Barbarians with Dr Rhiannon EvansTune in to learn more about how the Romans thought about the peoples they came into contact with.What makes aBarbarian?Connotations have a very important place when thinking about barbarians. Our modern usage also influences how we think of the category. So the first order of business is a consideration of etymology and to consider who the Romans are applying the term to and why.There are a range of factors to consider when turning to the Roman use of the term. Up for discussion: who cops the designation of barbarian from the Roman perspective what makes someone more and less barbarous just what is happening on the other side of the Rhine and some of the problems with our source materials – written versus archaeological Julius Caesar'sBarbariansThere's nothing quite like expansion to bring a Roman into contact with barbarians. Julius Caesar's Gallic Wars detail his campaigns. Reading the source closely provide some clues as to: the divisions between the peoples the Roman criticism of the role of writing and speaking amongst non-Roman peoples maybe what's not happening (Roman victory) and differences in attitude to land use Implications of thePast on the PresentThe concept of barbarian may emerge from an ancient past, but it continues to have relevance today. The idea of who belongs and who is considered an outsider, and the concept of the Other, are part of an ongoing engagement with how people navigate their relationships with strangers. The conversation weaves through the dangers of Caesar's description of the Germani and touches upon Claudius' relationship with the Gauls, both of which have modern echoes that Dr R and Evans explore.Join us for all this and more!I, Dr G, sadly lament my absence from this episode – but having done the write up for this episode, I can assure you it is good!Henri Paul Motte 1886. Vercingetorix surrenders to Caesar. Image courtesy of: Wikimedia Commons.We love this version of the chief of the Arverni surrendering to Caesar for Motte's decision to centre the composition on Vercingetorix. The spectre of Caesar remains, but he is a distant haze of red surrounded by soldiers and defences. Vercingetorix is poised and still holding his sword.For our full show notes and edited transcripts, head on over to https://partialhistorians.com/Support the showPatreonKo-FiRead our booksRex: The Seven Kings of RomeYour Cheeky Guide to the Roman Empire Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

The conflict betweenpatricians and plebeians continues apace as we explore the politicalcomplexities of 460 BCE. Much like a Jane Austen novel, letters andrumours abound in the fair city of Rome…Episode 96 – Letters and RumoursAccording to the annalist tradition, debate continues to rage about the proposal for clarity around laws and the idea of equality before the law. This leads to an unusual situation: the tribunes from the previous year return to continue pushing for these changes. Livy notes that the tribunes are riding on a high after ensuring the recent demise of Caeso Quinctius. But this also means that the incoming consuls are dealing with tribunes who seem be becoming entrenched…Strategies forViolence?We saw in the previous episode that there seems to be a difference between how the older patricians go about politics—through mechanisms such as magistracies and the senate—and how the younger patricians seek to make plays, through public violence and intimidation. Nevertheless, it seems as though the younger ones might just have hit upon a new approach which Dr Rad explores through Livy's account.Letters and Rumours Abound…Perhaps as a response to the violence in the City, the tribunes hit upon a new approach to push for changes. And before you know it, secret letters are being delivered to the tribunes while they're in the forum! There are a few implications that arise because of this and more than a little drama…Dr G considers the narrative provided by Dionysius of Halicarnassus which leads into some intense set-piece speeches from Aulus Verginius and Gaius Claudius.Join us for an episode full of exciting turns, political jousting, letters and rumours, and maybe even…conspiracy! Our PlayersConsulsPublius Valerius P. f. Volusi n. Publicola (cos. II)Gaius Claudius Ap. f. M. n. Inrigillensis (or Regillensis) SabinusTribunesAulus VerginiusMarcus Volscius FictorPatriciansCaeso QuinctiusGiovanni Battista Piranesi 1756. Map of the Forum Romanum / Courtesy of: Wikimedia Commons.Although a much later vision of Rome than what we are exploring in this episode, nevertheless, Piranesi conjures up the Forma Urbis Romae project with this elegant etching which includes the forum, the site of much of the action. For our full show notes and edited transcripts, head on over to https://partialhistorians.com/Support the showPatreonKo-FiRead our booksRex: The Seven Kings of RomeYour Cheeky Guide to the Roman Empire Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

Episode 95 – Introducing Caeso QuinctiusThe complex relationship between the patricians and plebeians is central to our appreciation of the 460s BCE. In this episode we'll get to consider the complexities first hand with the entrance of Caeso Quinctius (remember this name, he's going places!).We jump back intothe narrative history of c. 461 BCE with our guides of the moment,Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus. Both are writing long afterthese events, which means that their accounts leave a lot to bedesired at times. Nevertheless, both are interested in presenting anarrative on the theme of power. How is it distributed? Who has itand who doesn't? And what are the mechanisms of political power inthis system of armies, consuls, patricians, and plebeians?Young Versus Old?Livy makes mention of the some generational differences in attitude of the elder patricians and their scions. These simmering tensions influence the way politics plays out in the forum. Dionysius is more interested in discoursing upon the variety of patrician attitudes towards the tribunes, including trying to undermine their legitimacy by noting that they have no connection to the gods. It's at this point that the young patricians start to emerge with a reputation for public violence… Enter CaesoQuinctiusYoung, handsome, dangerous, and patrician – he not only has a reputation for words, but he seems like the kinda man who'd back himself in a fight. As a ringleader amongst the young patricians, Quinctius has earned himself a bit of a reputation. Things start to get rough for this youthful specimen of Roman masculinity when Aulus Verginius, tribune of the plebs, seeks to bring charges against him…Our Key PlayersConsulsPublius Volumnius M. f. M. n. Amintinus Gallus (pat.)Servius Sulpicius – f. Ser. n. Camerinus Cornutus (pat.)Tribune of the PlebsAulus VerginiusMarcus VolsciusPatriciansCaeso QuinctiusLucius Quinctius “Cincinnatus”Further readingLintott, A. W. 1970. ‘The Traditions of Violence in the Annals of the Early Roman Republic' Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte 19.1.12-29 Henryk Siemiradzki c. 1880s A Dangerous Game. Image Source: Wikimedia CommonsAlthough considered to depict a mythological scene, this painting hints at the undercurrent of violence inherent in this episode as well as suggesting the generational factors at play. For our full show notes and edited transcripts, head on over to https://partialhistorians.com/Support the showPatreonKo-FiRead our booksRex: The Seven Kings of RomeYour Cheeky Guide to the Roman Empire Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

Episode 94 – Flesh Rains Down Upon TheeWe return to Rome's narrative from the founding of City. The year c. 462 BCE ends on a high note with the consuls both gathering honours for their military exploits. L. Lucretius Tricipitinus is awarded a triumph for his successes against the Aequii while T. Veturius Geminus scores an ovatio for his part against the Volscii. As for the title of this episode—'Flesh Rains Down Upon Thee'— well, we wouldn't want to spoil it, but let's just say it's best to keep your ears alert for prodigies!C. 461 BCE is a bigyear for Rome in many respects and we'll be examining it in depthover a couple of episodes. Here are our main players:The ConsulsPubliusVolumnius M. f. M. n. Amintinus Gallus (patrician)ServiusSulpicius – f. Ser. n. Camerinus Cornutus (patrician)Prefect of the CityQuintusFabiusTribune of the PlebsGaiusTerentius (Terentilius?) HarsaAulusVerginiusRestrictions onconsular power?One of the big subjects that comes into play is the extent of imperium held by the consuls. We start to get inklings in both Livy and Dionysius' accounts that something is not quite right in Rome. The tribunes, in particular, are not satisfied with the status quo. One of the difficulties lies in the nature of the populace, what do our sources mean by the populace and why is it so challenging to understand them in a coherent way? Beyond the murky and inconsistent character of the populace is the nebulous ideas that the tribunes are raising which include a need for equality of rights and equality of speech. Listen in as we explore the question of what is politically afoot in Rome at this time.ACodification of the laws…The conversation between the senate and the tribunes is tense, but it's clear that we're inching closer to a law code. The tribunes (and thus the populace) are calling for transparency, the senate is resisting, and then the heavens themselves open.‘A day in ancient Rome; being a revision of Lohr's “Aus dem alten Rom”, with numerous illustrations', by Edgar S. Shumway (1885) ~ Wikimedia Commons From left to right: the Tiber, the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, and the emporiumFor our full show notes and edited transcripts, head on over to https://partialhistorians.com/Support the showPatreonKo-FiRead our booksRex: The Seven Kings of RomeYour Cheeky Guide to the Roman Empire Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.