Conflicted: A History Podcast

In August of 1914, the United States of America completed a man-made waterway through the Panamanian isthmus, linking the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans for the first time in history. But that engineering triumph was the culmination of decades of toil, conflict and death. In this first episode of a multi-part series on the Panama Canal, we trace the origins of its construction, beginning with the doomed French attempt and its tragic protagonist, Ferdinand de Lesseps. SOURCES: Burton, Anthony. The Canal Pioneers: Canal Construction from 2500 BC to the Early 20th Century. Barnsley, UK: Pen & Sword Maritime, 2018. Charles River Editors. The Panama Canal: The Construction and History of the Waterway Between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. CreateSpace Independent Publishing, 2013. Diaz Espino, Ovidio. How Wall Street Created a Nation: J.P. Morgan, Teddy Roosevelt, and the Panama Canal. New York: Four Walls Eight Windows, 2003. Greene, Julie. The Canal Builders: Making America’s Empire at the Panama Canal. New York: Penguin Press, 2009. Karabell, Zachary. Parting the Desert: The Creation of the Suez Canal. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2003. Keller, Ulrich. The Building of the Panama Canal in Historic Photographs. New York: Dover Publications, 1983. Lasso, Marixa. Erased: The Untold Story of the Panama Canal. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2019. Lindsay, John. Emperors in the Jungle: The Hidden History of the U.S. in Panama. 2003. Lopez, Sean J. Chokepoint: The Epic History of the Suez Canal. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2024. Marlowe, Elias. A History of Panama: Canal, Conquest, and Independence. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2012. McCullough, David. The Path Between the Seas: The Creation of the Panama Canal, 1870–1914. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1977. Morton, Levi P. “No. 105. Mr. Morton to Mr. Frelinghuysen.” Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States, Transmitted to Congress, With the Annual Message of the President, December 1, 1884, U.S. Department of State Office of the Historian, 5 July 1884,https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1884/d105 Parker, Matthew. Panama Fever: The Epic Story of the Building of the Panama Canal. New York: Doubleday, 2007. Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

As the Japanese police prepare for a raid on the Aum Shinrikyo compound, cult leader Shoko Asahara launches a desperate chemical weapons attack in downtown Tokyo. During the height of Monday morning rush hour, Aum terrorists target five commuter trains with sarin gas, killing 13 people and scarring the psyche of an entire nation. In the aftermath, survivors struggle to pick up the pieces of their lives and adapt to new realities. SOURCES: Amarasingam, A. (2017, April 5). A history of sarin as a weapon. The Atlantic. Brackett, D. W. Holy Terror: Armageddon in Tokyo. 1996. Cotton, Simon. “Nerve Agents: What Are They and How Do They Work?” American Scientist, vol. 106, no. 3, 2018, pp. 138–40. Danzig, Richard; Sageman, Marc; Leighton, Terrance; Hough, Lloyd; Yuki, Hidemi; Kotani, Rui; Hosford, Zachary M.. Aum Shinrikyo: Insights Into How Terrorists Develop Biological and Chemical Weapons . Center for a New American Security. 2011 “Former ER Doctor Recalls Fear Treating Victims in 1995 Tokyo Sarin Attack.” The Japan Times, March 18, 2025.. Gunaratna, Rohan. “Aum Shinrikyo’s Rise, Fall and Revival.” Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, vol. 10, no. 8, 2018, pp. 1–6. Harmon, Christopher C. “How Terrorist Groups End: Studies of the Twentieth Century.” Strategic Studies Quarterly, vol. 4, no. 3, 2010, pp. 43–84. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/26269787. “IHT: A Safe and Sure System — Until Now.” The New York Times, 21 Mar. 1995. Jones, Seth G., and Martin C. Libicki. “Policing and Japan’s Aum Shinrikyo.” How Terrorist Groups End: Lessons for Countering al Qa’ida, RAND Corporation, 2008, pp. 45–62. Kaplan, David E. (1996) “Aum’s Shoko Asahara and the Cult at the End of the World”. WIRED. Lifton, Robert Jay. Destroying the World to Save It: Aum Shinrikyo, Apocalyptic Violence, and the New Global Terrorism. 1999. Murakami, Haruki. Underground: The Tokyo Gas Attack and the Japanese Psyche. Translated by Alfred Birnbaum and Philip Gabriel. 2001. Murphy, P. (2014, June 21). Matsumoto: Aum’s sarin guinea pig. The Japan Times. Reader, Ian. Religious Violence in Contemporary Japan: The Case of Aum Shinrikyo. 2000. Tucker, Jonathan B. “Chemical/Biological Terrorism: Coping with a New Threat.” Politics and the Life Sciences, vol. 15, no. 2, 1996, pp. 167–83. Ushiyama, Rin. “Shock and Anger: Societal Responses to the Tokyo Subway Attack.” Aum Shinrikyō and Religious Terrorism in Japanese Collective Memory., The British Academy, 2023, pp. 52–80. Williams, Richard. 2003. “Marathon Man.” The Guardian, May 16, 2003. “Woman bedridden since AUM cult’s 1995 sarin gas attack on Tokyo subway dies at 56.” The Mainichi (English), 20 Mar. 2020, “30 Years After Sarin Attack — Lessons Learned / Brother Kept Diary For Sister Caught in Sarin Attack, Chronicling Her 25-Year Struggle With Illness” The Japan News, 19 Mar. 2025, Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

On March 20th, 1995, the Tokyo subway system was flooded with sarin nerve gas in a coordinated terrorist attack by the religious cult Aum Shinrikyō. Led by the charismatic new-age guru, Shoko Asahara, the well-funded and technologically ambitious Aum organization manufactured and deployed chemical weapons in an attempt to bring about the end of the world. In the chaos that followed, 13 people were killed, thousands were injured, and the international community shuddered at the possibility of future attacks by fringe political groups. SOURCES: Amarasingam, A. (2017, April 5). A history of sarin as a weapon. The Atlantic. Cotton, Simon. “Nerve Agents: What Are They and How Do They Work?” American Scientist, vol. 106, no. 3, 2018, pp. 138–40. Danzig, Richard; Sageman, Marc; Leighton, Terrance; Hough, Lloyd; Yuki, Hidemi; Kotani, Rui; Hosford, Zachary M.. Aum Shinrikyo: Insights Into How Terrorists Develop Biological and Chemical Weapons . Center for a New American Security. 2011. Gunaratna, Rohan. “Aum Shinrikyo’s Rise, Fall and Revival.” Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, vol. 10, no. 8, 2018, pp. 1–6. Harmon, Christopher C. “How Terrorist Groups End: Studies of the Twentieth Century.” Strategic Studies Quarterly, vol. 4, no. 3, 2010, pp. 43–84. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/26269787. “IHT: A Safe and Sure System — Until Now.” The New York Times, 21 Mar. 1995. Jones, Seth G., and Martin C. Libicki. “Policing and Japan’s Aum Shinrikyo.” How Terrorist Groups End: Lessons for Countering al Qa’ida, RAND Corporation, 2008, pp. 45–62. Kaplan, David E. (1996) “Aum’s Shoko Asahara and the Cult at the End of the World”. WIRED. Lifton, Robert Jay. Destroying the World to Save It: Aum Shinrikyo, Apocalyptic Violence, and the New Global Terrorism. 1999. Murakami, Haruki. Underground: The Tokyo Gas Attack and the Japanese Psyche. Translated by Alfred Birnbaum and Philip Gabriel. 2001. Murphy, P. (2014, June 21). Matsumoto: Aum’s sarin guinea pig. The Japan Times. Reader, Ian. Religious Violence in Contemporary Japan: The Case of Aum Shinrikyo. 2000. Tucker, Jonathan B. “Chemical/Biological Terrorism: Coping with a New Threat.” Politics and the Life Sciences, vol. 15, no. 2, 1996, pp. 167–83. Ushiyama, Rin. “Shock and Anger: Societal Responses to the Tokyo Subway Attack.” Aum Shinrikyō and Religious Terrorism in Japanese Collective Memory., The British Academy, 2023, pp. 52–80. Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

In the summer of 1960, all eyes are on Israel. As the Jewish nation unveils its capture of Adolf Eichmann to the world, a bitter controversy swirls around the notorious SS officer. Eichmann’s lawyer, Dr. Robert Servatius, scrambles to cobble together a defense strategy and save his client from the noose. In Jerusalem, journalist and scholar Hannah Arendt wrestles with questions about the nature of evil. SOURCES: Aharoni, Zvi. Dietl, Wilhelm. Operation Eichmann: Pursuit and Capture. 1997. Arendt, Hannah. Eichmann In Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil. 1963. Bascomb, Neal. Hunting Eichmann: How a Band of Survivors and a Young Spy Agency Chased Down the World’s Most Notorious Nazi. 2009. Bergman, Ronen. Rise and Kill First: The Secret History of Israel’s Targeted Assassinations. 2018. Charles Rivers Editors. The Mossad. 2019. Charles Rivers Editors. Germany and the Cold War. 2018. Charles Rivers Editors. Israel’s Most Legendary Operations. 2018. Goni, Uki. The Real Odessa: How Nazi War Criminals Escaped Europe. 2003. Fairweather, Jack. The Prosecutor: One Man’s Batlle to Bring Nazis to Justice. 2025. Hourly History. The Nuremberg Trials. 2020. Lipstadt, Deborah. The Eichmann Trial. 2011. MacLean, French. American Hangman: MSGT. John C. Woods. 2019. Roland, Paul. The Nuremberg Trials: The Nazis and Their Crimes Against Humanity. 2010. Scott-Bauman, Michael. The Shortest History of Israel and Palestine. 2023. Stangneth, Buttina. Eichmann Before Jerusalem: The Unexamined Life of a Mass Murderer. 2014. Stein, Harry. Malkin, Peter. Eichmann In My Hands. 1990. Steinke, Ronan. Fritz Bauer: The Jewish Prosecutor Who Brought Eichmann and Auschwitz to Trial. 2020. Thomas, Gordon. The Secret History of the Mossad. 1999. Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

Adolf Eichmann has been found. In the spring of 1960, Mossad launches a daring operation to kidnap “Ricardo Klement” and smuggle him back to Israel to face judgement. SOURCES: Aharoni, Zvi. Dietl, Wilhelm. Operation Eichmann: Pursuit and Capture. 1997. Arendt, Hannah. Eichmann In Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil. 1963. Bascomb, Neal. Hunting Eichmann: How a Band of Survivors and a Young Spy Agency Chased Down the World’s Most Notorious Nazi. 2009. Bergman, Ronen. Rise and Kill First: The Secret History of Israel’s Targeted Assassinations. 2018. Charles Rivers Editors. The Mossad. 2019. Charles Rivers Editors. Germany and the Cold War. 2018. Charles Rivers Editors. Israel’s Most Legendary Operations. 2018. Goni, Uki. The Real Odessa: How Nazi War Criminals Escaped Europe. 2003. Fairweather, Jack. The Prosecutor: One Man’s Batlle to Bring Nazis to Justice. 2025. Hourly History. The Nuremberg Trials. 2020. Lauryssens, Stan. The Eichmann Legacy. 2017. Lipstadt, Deborah. The Eichmann Trial. 2011. MacLean, French. American Hangman: MSGT. John C. Woods. 2019. Roland, Paul. The Nuremberg Trials: The Nazis and Their Crimes Against Humanity. 2010. Scott-Bauman, Michael. The Shortest History of Israel and Palestine. 2023. Stangneth, Buttina. Eichmann Before Jerusalem: The Unexamined Life of a Mass Murderer. 2014. Stein, Harry. Malkin, Peter. Eichmann In My Hands. 1990. Steinke, Ronan. Fritz Bauer: The Jewish Prosecutor Who Brought Eichmann and Auschwitz to Trial. 2020. Thomas, Gordon. The Secret History of the Mossad. 1999. https://www.npr.org/2019/07/16/740686212/the-doctor-who-helped-israeli-spies-catch-eichmann-but-refused-recognition-for-i Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

When World War II ended, SS officer Adolf Eichmann disappeared. As a key organizer of Nazi Germany’s Final Solution, the genocidal program that murdered 6 million European Jews, Eichmann became one of the most hunted men on earth. For 15 years, he remained hidden. But in 1957, through the efforts of a West German lawyer, a blind man, and Israeli intelligence, Eichmann’s trail was found, leading to Buenos Aires, Argentina… SOURCES: Arendt, Hannah. Eichmann In Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil. 1963. Bascomb, Neal. Hunting Eichmann: How a Band of Survivors and a Young Spy Agency Chased Down the World’s Most Notorious Nazi. 2009. Bergman, Ronen. Rise and Kill First: The Secret History of Israel’s Targeted Assassinations. 2018. Charles Rivers Editors. The Mossad. 2019. Charles Rivers Editors. Germany and the Cold War. 2018. Charles Rivers Editors. Israel’s Most Legendary Operations. 2018. Goni, Uki. The Real Odessa: How Nazi War Criminals Escaped Europe. 2003. Fairweather, Jack. The Prosecutor: One Man’s Batlle to Bring Nazis to Justice. 2025. Hourly History. The Nuremberg Trials. 2020. Lauryssens, Stan. The Eichmann Legacy. 2017. Lipstadt, Deborah. The Eichmann Trial. 2011. MacLean, French. American Hangman: MSGT. John C. Woods. 2019. Roland, Paul. The Nuremberg Trials: The Nazis and Their Crimes Against Humanity. 2010. Scott-Bauman, Michael. The Shortest History of Israel and Palestine. 2023. Stangneth, Buttina. Eichmann Before Jerusalem: The Unexamined Life of a Mass Murderer. 2014. Stein, Harry. Malkin, Peter. Eichmann In My Hands. 1990. Steinke, Ronan. Fritz Bauer: The Jewish Prosecutor Who Brought Eichmann and Auschwitz to Trial. 2020. Thomas, Gordon. The Secret History of the Mossad. 1999. Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

In the conclusion of the series, Justinian and Theodora face a cascade of setbacks and disasters. The Empress hatches a plan to destroy John the Cappadocian. Belisarius learns of Antonina’s serial infidelity. A deadly Plague threatens to bring the Byzantine empire to its knees. SOURCES: Bridge, Antony. Theodora: Portrait in a Byzantine Landscape. 1978. Potter, David. Theodora: Actress, Empress, Saint. 2015. Parnell, David Alan. Belisarius & Antonina: Love and War in the Age of Justinian. 2023. Hughes, Bettany. Istanbul: A Tale of Three Cities. 2017. Sarris, Peter. Justinian: Emperor, Soldier, Saint. 2023. Kaldellis, Anthony. The New Roman Empire: A History of Byzantium. 2023. Cesaretti, Paolo. Theodora: Empress of Byzantium. 2003. Procopius. The Secret History. Procopius. The Wars of Justinian. Phillips, Robin. West, Jeff. Who in the World Was The Acrobatic Empress? 2006. Norwich, John Julius. Absolute Monarchs: A History of the Papacy. 2011. Evans, James Allan. The Empress Theodora: Partner of Justinian. 2002. Holmes, Nick. Justinian’s Empire: Triumph and Tragedy. 2024. Charles Rivers Editors. Justinian the Great: The Life and Legacy of the Byzantine Emperor. 2014. Captivating History. The Byzantine Empire. 2018 Captivating History. The Vandals. 2018 Dahm, Murray. Combat: Byzantine Cavalryman vs Vandal Warrior. 2023. https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2011/01/03/gods-librarians Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

With the Nika Riots behind them, Justinian and Theodora rebuild Constantinople and pursue a bold new agenda for the Byzantine Empire. Belisarius sails to war against the Vandal Kingdom. John the Cappadocian seeks to drive a wedge between the imperial couple. SOURCES: Bridge, Antony. Theodora: Portrait in a Byzantine Landscape. 1978. Potter, David. Theodora: Actress, Empress, Saint. 2015. Parnell, David Alan. Belisarius & Antonina: Love and War in the Age of Justinian. 2023. Hughes, Bettany. Istanbul: A Tale of Three Cities. 2017. Sarris, Peter. Justinian: Emperor, Soldier, Saint. 2023. Kaldellis, Anthony. The New Roman Empire: A History of Byzantium. 2023. Cesaretti, Paolo. Theodora: Empress of Byzantium. 2003. Procopius. The Secret History. Procopius. The Wars of Justinian. Phillips, Robin. West, Jeff. Who in the World Was The Acrobatic Empress? 2006. Norwich, John Julius. Absolute Monarchs: A History of the Papacy. 2011. Evans, James Allan. The Empress Theodora: Partner of Justinian. 2002. Holmes, Nick. Justinian’s Empire: Triumph and Tragedy. 2024. Charles Rivers Editors. Justinian the Great: The Life and Legacy of the Byzantine Emperor. 2014. Captivating History. The Byzantine Empire. 2018 Captivating History. The Vandals. 2018 Dahm, Murray. Combat: Byzantine Cavalryman vs Vandal Warrior. 2023. Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

After being crowned Emperor and Empress of the Byzantine Empire, Justinian and Theodora face their first major test as rulers, the deadly Nika Riots of 532 AD. SOURCES: Bridge, Antony. Theodora: Portrait in a Byzantine Landscape. Potter, David. Theodora: Actress, Empress, Saint. Parnell, David Alan. Belisarius & Antonina: Love and War in the Age of Justinian Hughes, Bettany. Istanbul: A Tale of Three Cities. Sarris, Peter. Justinian: Emperor, Soldier, Saint. Cesaretti, Paolo. Theodora: Empress of Byzantium. Procopius. The Secret History. Phillips, Robin. West, Jeff. Who in the World Was The Acrobatic Empress? Norwich, John Julius. Absolute Monarchs: A History of the Papacy Evans, James Allan. The Empress Theodora: Partner of Justinian. Holmes, Nick. Justinian’s Empire: Triumph and Tragedy Charles Rivers Editors. Justinian the Great: The Life and Legacy of the Byzantine Emperor. Captivating History. The Byzantine Empire. 2018 Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

From 527 to 565 AD, Emperor Justinian I and his Empress Theodora ruled over the Byzantine Empire in Constantinople. Together, they reshaped the Mediterranean world, weathering political upheaval, wars of conquest, and an outbreak of bubonic plague. In this first installment of a multi-part series, we explore the early years of New Rome’s greatest power couple. Rising from a disreputable background in the brothels of Constantinople, the actress-turned-informant Theodora catches the eye of Prince Justinian, heir to the Byzantine throne... SOURCES: Bridge, Antony. Theodora: Portrait in a Byzantine Landscape. Potter, David. Theodora: Actress, Empress, Saint. Parnell, David Alan. Belisarius & Antonina: Love and War in the Age of Justinian Hughes, Bettany. Istanbul: A Tale of Three Cities. Sarris, Peter. Justinian: Emperor, Soldier, Saint. Cesaretti, Paolo. Theodora: Empress of Byzantium. Procopius. The Secret History. Phillips, Robin. West, Jeff. Who in the World Was The Acrobatic Empress? Norwich, John Julius. Absolute Monarchs: A History of the Papacy Evans, James Allan. The Empress Theodora: Partner of Justinian. Holmes, Nick. Justinian’s Empire: Triumph and Tragedy Charles Rivers Editors. Justinian the Great: The Life and Legacy of the Byzantine Emperor. Captivating History. The Byzantine Empire. 2018 Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

On December 3rd, 1971, India and Pakistan go to war on two fronts, battling for the future of Bangladesh. In the East, the Indian army races against time, hoping to capture Dacca and force a Pakistani surrender before the United Nations can demand a ceasefire. Meanwhile, Richard Nixon and Henry Kissinger unleash a fusillade of diplomatic pressure to frighten a defiant Indira Gandhi into compliance. After months of imprisonment, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman learns what has happened to his country. The war ends, and a new era begins. SOURCES: Bass, Gary K. The Blood Telegram: Nixon, Kissinger, and a Forgotten Genocide. 2013. Bennet-Jones, Own. The Bhutto Dynasty. 2020. Carney, Scott. Miklian, Jason. The Vortex: A True Story of History’s Deadliest Storm, an Unspeakable War, and Liberation. 2022. Chang, Jung. Halliday, Jon. Mao: The Unknown Story. 2005. Frank, Katherine. Indira: The Life of Indira Nehru Gandhi. 2001. Gewen, Barry. The Inevitability of Tragedy: Henry Kissinger and his World. 2020. Hiro, Dilip. The Longest August: The Unflinching Rivalry Between India and Pakistan. 2015. Hitchens, Christopher. The Trial of Henry Kissinger. 2001. Hoodbhoy, Pervez. Pakistan: Origins, Identity and Future. 2023. Jalal, Ayesha. The Struggle for Pakistan. 2014. James, Lawrence. Raj: The Making and Unmaking of British India. 1997. Jayakar, Pupul. Indira Gandhi: A Biography. 1975. Khosa, Faisal. The Making of Martyrs in India, Pakistan & Bangladesh. 2021. K.S. Nair. December In Dacca. 2022. Keay, John. India: A History. 2000. Mookherjee, Nayanika. The Spectral Wound. 2015. Raghavan, Srinath. 1971: A Global History of the Creation of Bangladesh. 2013. Rose, Leo. Sisson, Richard. War and Secession. Pakistan, India, and the Creation of Bangladesh. 1990. Saikia, Yasmin. Women, War, and the Making of Bangladesh. 2011. Schanberg, Sydney.”He Tells Full Story of Arrest and Detention.” New York Times Jan 1972 Schendel, Willem van. A History of Bangladesh. 2009. Schwartz, Thomas Alan. Henry Kissinger and American Power. 2020. Sengupta, Nitish. Land of Two Rivers: A History of Bengal. 2011. Siddiqi, A. R. Yahya Khan: The Rise and Fall of a Soldier. 2020. Tudda, Chris. A Cold War Turning Point: Nixon and China, 1969-1972. 2012. Walsh, Declan. The Nine Lives of Pakistan. 2020. Zakaria, Anam. 1971: A People’s History from Bangladesh, Pakistan, and India. 2019. Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

As Yahya Khan’s crackdown in East Pakistan sparks a refugee crisis and a guerilla insurgency, the neighboring nation of India, led by Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, must decide how to respond. Meanwhile, President Richard Nixon and Henry Kissinger pursue secret talks with Communist China. In Madison Square Garden, musicians George Harrison and Ravi Shankar organize a massive charity concert for the people of Bangladesh. SOURCES: Bass, Gary K. The Blood Telegram: Nixon, Kissinger, and a Forgotten Genocide. 2013. Bennet-Jones, Own. The Bhutto Dynasty. 2020. Carney, Scott. Miklian, Jason. The Vortex: A True Story of History’s Deadliest Storm, an Unspeakable War, and Liberation. 2022. Chang, Jung. Halliday, Jon. Mao: The Unknown Story. 2005. Frank, Katherine. Indira: The Life of Indira Nehru Gandhi. 2001. Gewen, Barry. The Inevitability of Tragedy: Henry Kissinger and his World. 2020. Hiro, Dilip. The Longest August: The Unflinching Rivalry Between India and Pakistan. 2015. Hitchens, Christopher. The Trial of Henry Kissinger. 2001. Hoodbhoy, Pervez. Pakistan: Origins, Identity and Future. 2023. Jalal, Ayesha. The Struggle for Pakistan. 2014. James, Lawrence. Raj: The Making and Unmaking of British India. 1997. Jayakar, Pupul. Indira Gandhi: A Biography. 1975. Khosa, Faisal. The Making of Martyrs in India, Pakistan & Bangladesh. 2021. K.S. Nair. December In Dacca. 2022. Keay, John. India: A History. 2000. Mookherjee, Nayanika. The Spectral Wound. 2015. Raghavan, Srinath. 1971: A Global History of the Creation of Bangladesh. 2013. Rose, Leo. Sisson, Richard. War and Secession. Pakistan, India, and the Creation of Bangladesh. 1990. Saikia, Yasmin. Women, War, and the Making of Bangladesh. 2011. Schendel, Willem van. A History of Bangladesh. 2009. Schwartz, Thomas Alan. Henry Kissinger and American Power. 2020. Sengupta, Nitish. Land of Two Rivers: A History of Bengal. 2011. Tudda, Chris. A Cold War Turning Point: Nixon and China, 1969-1972. 2012. Walsh, Declan. The Nine Lives of Pakistan. 2020. Zakaria, Anam. 1971: A People’s History from Bangladesh, Pakistan, and India. 2019. Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

Join me for a special featured episode of BEEF, a scripted podcast narrated by award-winning host Bridget Todd. This episode tells the story of explorers Sir Richard Burton and Captain John Hanning Speke as they face unimaginable dangers, and their own divisiveness, while searching for the source of the Nile River. Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

On March 25th, 1971, President Yahya Khan launches Operation Searchlight in East Pakistan, a brutal military crackdown intended to snuff out Bengali separatism and restore West Pakistani authority. Meanwhile, an American diplomat in Dacca named Archer Blood begins reporting and documenting the slaughter, hoping to convince his government to step in and restrain Yahya. In Washington, D.C., President Richard Nixon and his national security advisor Henry Kissinger weigh the political costs of intervening in the atrocities, while secretly planning a groundbreaking outreach to Communist China. SOURCES: Bass, Gary K. The Blood Telegram: Nixon, Kissinger, and a Forgotten Genocide. 2013. Bennet-Jones, Own. The Bhutto Dynasty. 2020. Carney, Scott. Miklian, Jason. The Vortex: A True Story of History’s Deadliest Storm, an Unspeakable War, and Liberation. 2022. Chang, Jung. Halliday, Jon. Mao: The Unknown Story. 2005. Frank, Katherine. Indira: The Life of Indira Nehru Gandhi. 2001. Gewen, Barry. The Inevitability of Tragedy: Henry Kissinger and his World. 2020. Hiro, Dilip. The Longest August: The Unflinching Rivalry Between India and Pakistan. 2015. Hitchens, Christopher. The Trial of Henry Kissinger. 2001. Hoodbhoy, Pervez. Pakistan: Origins, Identity and Future. 2023. Jalal, Ayesha. The Struggle for Pakistan. 2014. James, Lawrence. Raj: The Making and Unmaking of British India. 1997. Jayakar, Pupul. Indira Gandhi: A Biography. 1975. Khosa, Faisal. The Making of Martyrs in India, Pakistan & Bangladesh. 2021. K.S. Nair. December In Dacca. 2022. Keay, John. India: A History. 2000. Mookherjee, Nayanika. The Spectral Wound. 2015. Raghavan, Srinath. 1971: A Global History of the Creation of Bangladesh. 2013. Rose, Leo. Sisson, Richard. War and Secession. Pakistan, India, and the Creation of Bangladesh. 1990. Saikia, Yasmin. Women, War, and the Making of Bangladesh. 2011. Schendel, Willem van. A History of Bangladesh. 2009. Schwartz, Thomas Alan. Henry Kissinger and American Power. 2020. Sengupta, Nitish. Land of Two Rivers: A History of Bengal. 2011. Tudda, Chris. A Cold War Turning Point: Nixon and China, 1969-1972. 2012. Walsh, Declan. The Nine Lives of Pakistan. 2020. Zakaria, Anam. 1971: A People’s History from Bangladesh, Pakistan, and India. 2019. Secure your privacy with Surfshark! Enter coupon code CONFLICTED for 4 months EXTRA at https://surfshark.com/conflicted Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

In the wake of the deadly Bhola Cyclone, 50 million Pakistanis go to the polls on December 7th, 1970 and cast their votes in a national election, which yields unexpected and destabilizing results. As the emergent factions fight for control of Pakistan’s nascent democracy, the political process slowly disintegrates and the gulf between East and West Pakistan becomes irreconcilable. SOURCES: Bass, Gary K. The Blood Telegram: Nixon, Kissinger, and a Forgotten Genocide. 2013. Bennet-Jones, Own. The Bhutto Dynasty. 2020. Carney, Scott. Miklian, Jason. The Vortex: A True Story of History’s Deadliest Storm, an Unspeakable War, and Liberation. 2022. Chang, Jung. Halliday, Jon. Mao: The Unknown Story. 2005. Frank, Katherine. Indira: The Life of Indira Nehru Gandhi. 2001. Gewen, Barry. The Inevitability of Tragedy: Henry Kissinger and his World. 2020. Hiro, Dilip. The Longest August: The Unflinching Rivalry Between India and Pakistan. 2015. Hitchens, Christopher. The Trial of Henry Kissinger. 2001. Hoodbhoy, Pervez. Pakistan: Origins, Identity and Future. 2023. Jalal, Ayesha. The Struggle for Pakistan. 2014. James, Lawrence. Raj: The Making and Unmaking of British India. 1997. Jayakar, Pupul. Indira Gandhi: A Biography. 1975. Khosa, Faisal. The Making of Martyrs in India, Pakistan & Bangladesh. 2021. K.S. Nair. December In Dacca. 2022. Keay, John. India: A History. 2000. Mookherjee, Nayanika. The Spectral Wound. 2015. Raghavan, Srinath. 1971: A Global History of the Creation of Bangladesh. 2013. Rose, Leo. Sisson, Richard. War and Secession. Pakistan, India, and the Creation of Bangladesh. 1990. Saikia, Yasmin. Women, War, and the Making of Bangladesh. 2011. Schendel, Willem van. A History of Bangladesh. 2009. Schwartz, Thomas Alan. Henry Kissinger and American Power. 2020. Sengupta, Nitish. Land of Two Rivers: A History of Bengal. 2011. Tudda, Chris. A Cold War Turning Point: Nixon and China, 1969-1972. 2012. Walsh, Declan. The Nine Lives of Pakistan. 2020. Zakaria, Anam. 1971: A People’s History from Bangladesh, Pakistan, and India. 2019. Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

In March 1971, the nation of Pakistan was split apart by a vicious civil war, eventually culminating in the creation of a new state: Bangladesh. In this first episode of a multi-part series, we trace the origins of the conflict and introduce the key historical figures involved. SOURCES: Bass, Gary K. The Blood Telegram: Nixon, Kissinger, and a Forgotten Genocide. Bennet-Jones, Own. The Bhutto Dynasty. Carney, Scott. Miklian, Jason. The Vortex: A True Story of History’s Deadliest Storm, an Unspeakable War, and Liberation. Chang, Jung. Halliday, Jon. Mao: The Unknown Story. Frank, Katherine. Indira: The Life of Indira Nehru Gandhi. Gewen, Barry. The Inevitability of Tragedy: Henry Kissinger and his World. Hiro, Dilip. The Longest August: The Unflinching Rivalry Between India and Pakistan. Hitchens, Christopher. The Trial of Henry Kissinger. Hoodbhoy, Pervez. Pakistan: Origins, Identity and Future. Jalal, Ayesha. The Struggle for Pakistan. James, Lawrence. Raj: The Making and Unmaking of British India. Jayakar, Pupul. Indira Gandhi: A Biography. Khosa, Faisal. The Making of Martyrs in India, Pakistan & Bangladesh. K.S. Nair. December In Dacca Keay, John. India: A History. Mookherjee, Nayanika. The Spectral Wound. Raghavan, Srinath. 1971: A Global History of the Creation of Bangladesh. Rose, Leo. Sisson, Richard. War and Secession. Pakistan, India, and the Creation of Bangladesh. Saikia, Yasmin. Women, War, and the Making of Bangladesh. Schendel, Willem van. A History of Bangladesh. Schwartz, Thomas Alan. Henry Kissinger and American Power. Sengupta, Nitish. Land of Two Rivers: A History of Bengal. Tudda, Chris. A Cold War Turning Point: Nixon and China, 1969-1972. Walsh, Declan. The Nine Lives of Pakistan. Zakaria, Anam. 1971: A People’s History from Bangladesh, Pakistan, and India. Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

In January of 1948, Alfred Kinsey releases his first book, Sexual Behavior in the Human Male, igniting a firestorm of controversy across the United States. As the Professor scrambles to capitalize on his newfound fame and pen a sequel, his methodology comes under attack from skeptical academics and religious conservatives. Meanwhile, Kinsey’s research team at the Institute of Sex Research embarks on a series of increasingly bizarre – and politically dangerous – sexual adventures. SOURCES: Allen, Judith A. The Kinsey Institute: The First Seventy Years. 2017. Brenot, Phillipe. The Story of Sex. 2016. D’Emilio, John. Freedman, Estelle. Intimate Matters: The History of Sexuality in America. 1988. Donna J. Drucker, “‘A Noble Experiment’: The Marriage Course at Indiana University, 1938-1940,” IMH September 2007 https://www.jstor.org/stable/27792817?read-now=1&seq=7#page_scan_tab_contents Gary, Brett. Dirty Works. Obscenity on Trial in America’s First Sexual Revolution. 2021. Hardy, Gathorne. Sex: The Measure of All Things: A Life of Alfred C. Kinsey. 1998. Hegarty, Peter. Gentlemen’s Disagreement. 2013. Jones, James H. Alfred C. Kinsey: A Life. 1997. Wimpee, Rachel. Iacobell, Teresa. “Funding a Sexual Revolution: The Kinsey Reports.” Jan 9 2020. Rockefeller Archive Center. https://resource.rockarch.org/story/funding-a-sexual-revolution-the-kinsey-reports/ Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

As Dr. Alfred Kinsey begins his foray into sex research in 1938, he faces a rising tide of controversy at Indiana University, and is soon confronted with an ultimatum. While his research develops and his methodology takes shape, Kinsey is forced to reckon with hard truths about sex – and himself. SOURCES: Allen, Judith A. The Kinsey Institute: The First Seventy Years. 2017. Brenot, Phillipe. The Story of Sex. 2016. D’Emilio, John. Freedman, Estelle. Intimate Matters: The History of Sexuality in America. 1988. Donna J. Drucker, “‘A Noble Experiment’: The Marriage Course at Indiana University, 1938-1940,” IMH September 2007 https://www.jstor.org/stable/27792817?read-now=1&seq=7#page_scan_tab_contents Gary, Brett. Dirty Works. Obscenity on Trial in America’s First Sexual Revolution. 2021. Hardy, Gathorne. Sex: The Measure of All Things: A Life of Alfred C. Kinsey. 1998. Hegarty, Peter. Gentlemen’s Disagreement. 2013. Jones, James H. Alfred C. Kinsey: A Life. 1997. Wimpee, Rachel. Iacobell, Teresa. “Funding a Sexual Revolution: The Kinsey Reports.” Jan 9 2020. Rockefeller Archive Center. https://resource.rockarch.org/story/funding-a-sexual-revolution-the-kinsey-reports/ Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

In 1948, Dr. Alfred Kinsey wrote the book on sex. “The Kinsey Report”, as it came to be known, was a pioneering scientific study on the sexual habits of ordinary Americans. Divided into Male and Female Volumes, it challenged longstanding myths about sex and the religious ideology that upheld them. In this first installment of a three-part series, we explore the life, times and motivations of the enigmatic man behind the Kinsey Report – Dr. Alfred Kinsey. SOURCES: Allen, Judith A. The Kinsey Institute: The First Seventy Years. 2017. Brenot, Phillipe. The Story of Sex. 2016. D’Emilio, John. Freedman, Estelle. Intimate Matters: The History of Sexuality in America. 1988. Donna J. Drucker, “‘A Noble Experiment’: The Marriage Course at Indiana University, 1938-1940,” IMH September 2007 Gary, Brett. Dirty Works. Obscenity on Trial in America’s First Sexual Revolution. 2021. Hardy, Gathorne. Sex: The Measure of All Things: A Life of Alfred C. Kinsey. 1998. Hegarty, Peter. Gentlemen’s Disagreement. 2013. Jones, James H. Alfred C. Kinsey: A Life. 1997. Wimpee, Rachel. Iacobell, Teresa. “Funding a Sexual Revolution: The Kinsey Reports.” Jan 9 2020. Rockefeller Archive Center. Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices